A.
Semantic non-compositionality
(1)
Brazilian Portuguese (BP)
samba+canção
samba+song
‘boxers’
B.
Categorial exocentricity
(i.e., the compound’s overall category differs from those of its constituents).
(2)
BP
bate+bate
(V+V → N)
hit+hit
‘bumper cars’
C.
Disappearance of subcategorization
(i.e., the selection properties of a predicate within a compound a satisfied).
ire not
(3)
BP
a.
bate+bate
b. O João bateu o carro
hit+hit
DET John hit the car
‘bumper cars’
‘John hit the car’
D.
Lexical integrity effects
(i.e., the impossibility of moving (4) or pronominalizing only one of the compound’s members).
(4)
BP
a.
bolsa+famttia
financial.aid+family
‘social welfare program to assist families in poverty; family allowance’
b.
*Família, várias bois as-família, foram cortadas no último ano.
‘Family, many financial.aids were cut last year’.
(8)
a.
French
homme+grenouille
plongeur
b.
Spanish
hombre+rana
buceador(a)
c.
Italian
uomo+rana
sommozzatore
‘frogman
(Bauke, 2014 p. 22)
(9)
Patterns of nominal root compounding in German
a. Pattern#!:
•
Nominal RootCs made up of two bare lexical items combined without any intervening inflectional material;
•
They are non-recursive, non-compositional, and non-productive.
b. Pattern #2:
•
Nominal RootCs displaying inflectional material in compound internal positions, which is attached to the compound’s first constituent member;
•
Whenever these inflectional markers occur, the resulting compound is compositional and productive, and allows for a range of alternative interpretations — the so-called ‘weak compositionality’ (see Pirrelli, 2002).
(10)
German (Bauke, 2014, p. 26-27)
a.
Landstraβe
country+road
country road’
b.
Landsmann
country. GEN+man
compatriot’
or ‘man who loves the countryside’
or ‘man who advocates for the conservation of the countryside’, etc.
c.
Landeskirche
country. GEN+church
national church’
or church that is associated with the country’
or church that shows the country’s typical architecture’ etc.
d.
Landerspiel
country.PL+match
match between two national teams’
or game that involves knowledge about certain countries’,
or game that is typically played in certain countries’,
or game that is characterized by customs of a certain country,’ etc.
(11)
German (Bauke, 2014, p.28)
a.
Bettlaken
bed + sheet
‘bedsheet’
b.
Bettenburg
bed.PL+castle
‘big ugly hotel with lots of rooms’
(12)
Bauke’s generalization on German nominal root compounding
“As long as an inflectional marker is available [in compound internal positions], a compositional reading can still be retrieved; once the inflectional marker is lost, the interpretation of the compound is fixed and does not allow for productive alternatives? (2014, p. 30).
Table 1
Summary of Bauke’s proposal.
(14)
BP
a.
video+depoimento
video+testimony
Video testimony
b.
pastor+deputado
pastor+congressman
pastor congressman
c.
empreiteiro +politico
contractor+politician
contractor-politician
d.
pauta+bomba
schedule+bomb
‘tariff bomb’
e.
aula+debate
class+debate
‘debate class’
f.
juiz+estrela
judge+star
‘a judge who seeks fame; who got famous’
(15)
BP
pastor-deputado lit. pastor-congressman
i.
Attributive reading: ‘a pastor who, in addition to being a pastor, has another parallel occupation, congressman’;
ii.
Coordinate reading: ‘pastor and congressman’.1
(16)
BP
a.
samba+canção
→samba-s+cançõ-(es)
samba+song
samba-PL+song-PL
‘boxers’
‘boxers.PL’
b.
bolsa+famttia
→bolsa-s+famttia-(s)
finantial.aid+family
finantial.aid-PL+family-PL
‘family allowance
‘family allowances’
c.
cara+metade
→cara-s+metade(s)
face+half
face-PL+half-PL
‘soul mate
‘soul mates’
d.
banana+maçã
→banana-s+maçã-(s)
banana+apple
banana-PL+apple-PL
‘Latundan banana
‘Latundan bananas’
e.
meia+calça
→meia-s+calça-(s)
sock+pants
sock-PL+pants-PL
‘pantyhose
‘pantyhoses’
(17)
BP
a.
video+depoiménto
video+testimony
‘video-testimony’
Italian
b.
capo+stazióne
chief+station
‘stationmaster’
Spanish
c.
emprèsa+fantásma
firm+ghost
cover-up company
Catalan
d.
vagò+restauránt
wagon+restaurant
‘dining-car’
(18)
BP
a.
lul-o-fobia
Lula-LE-phobia
aversion to Lula
b.
cervej-o-chato
beer-LE-snob
‘beer snob’
(19)
BP
a.
bolsa+sanduiche
financial.aid+sandwich
‘financial aid/scholarship to graduate students visit a foreign university’
b.
banana+maçã
banana+apple
‘Latundan banana
c.
cão-salsicha
dog+sausage
‘dachshund’
(20)
BP
a.
bat-ev pap-on
hit-ThV.3p.PRT+goiter-CM
chat’
b.
pux-av sac-on
pull-ThV.3p.PRT+ball-CM
‘yes-man’
(21)
BP
a.
pã-o
dur-o
bread-CM
hard-MASC
‘iron-fisted; mean
b.
águ-a
viv-a
water-CM
alive-FEM
‘jellyfish’
(22)
Chinese (Zhang, 2007, p. 172)
a.
zhe zham zhuozi de da-xiao
(A+A → N)
this CL table MOD big-small
‘the size of this table
b.
vi ve hen bao-shou de ren
(V+V → N)
one CL very keep-defend MOD person a very conservative person
(23)
Chinese (Zhang, 2007, p. 174)
a.
Ta mai-le shu/*mai
he buy-PRF book/sell
‘he bought books’
b.
vi zhuang mai-mai
one CL buy-sell
‘a transaction of trade
(24)
Chinese (Zhang, 2007, p. 176)
a.
Tamen vixiam fu-ze
they always carry-duty
‘they are always responsible
b.
* Tamen yixiang lian ze dou fu
they always even duty also carry
Intended: ‘they are always even responsible
(25)
Chinese (Zhang, 2007, p. 177)
*Ta xian na-le vi ba chai-hu ranhou ba ta. dao-ru beizi-li he first take-PRF one CL tea-pot then BA it pour-in cup-in Intended: ‘he first took a tea-pot, and then poured the tea into a cup
(26)
Compounds within syntax
Compounds are phrasal structures with two or more categorized roots combined in a specific grammatical relation —viz. subordination, attribution, or coordination—, which are further categorized by a category head, n, v or a.
(27)
C;
llalan (Padrosa-Trias, 2007, p. 95)
a.
cama+trencar
leg+break
‘to break the leg(s)’
b.
El caçador va camatrencar Ibcell.
the hunter went leg-break the-bird
‘the hunter broke the bird’s leg(s)’
(28)
English
Tonight I’m babysitting my two-month-old nephew for my sister in law.
(29)
In which α, β, y are category-defining heads and ℜ stands for the grammatical relations of subordination, attribution and coordination.
(30)
a. [v v√ROOT]
b. [n n√ROOT]
(31)
English past tense
√TEACH + v(Voice) + past = taught
(Marantz, 2013, p. 98)
(33)
Murinypata (Walsh, 1976, p. 275)
a.
nanth
kamarl
CL·GENERIC
eye
eye/face
b.
kura
kamarl
CL·ACQUATIC
eye
water-hole
c.
kardu
kamarl
CL: HUMAN
eye
sweetheart’
d.
mi
kamarl
CL: VEGETABLE
eye
seed’
(36)
Grammatical relations internal to compounds
a.
Subordination
Head-complement relation in which a constituent a is set-Merged with β.
(e.g., {<√α, x>, <√β,x>}
b.
Attribution
Adjunction relation in which the non-head constituent β is pair-
Merged to its head a.
(e.g., <<√α, x>,<√β,x>>)
c.
Coordination
Conjunctive relation in which two categorially identical constituents, a and β, are connected by means of a functional coordination head, giving rise to a Boolean phrase &P.
(37)
a.
N = {nA1, nB1, √A1, √B1}
b.
N’ = {nA1, nB1, √A0, √B1}
K = nA
c.
N’’ = {nA0, nB1, √A0, √B1}
K=nA
L = √A
d.
N’’ = {nA0, nB1, √A0, √B1}
M = <√A, nA>
e.
N’’’ = {nA0, nB0, √A0, √B0}
M = <√A, nA>
O = nB
f.
N’’’= {nA0, nB0, √A0, √B0}
M = <√A, nA>
O = nB
P = √B
g·
N’’’= {nA0, nB0, √A0, √B0}
M = <Va, nA>
Q = <Vb, nB>
h.
N””= {nA0, nB0, √A0, √B0}
U = <<√B, nB>,<√A, nA>>
(39)
LF instructions (Harley, 2014, p. 244)
√77
↔
‘vomit’/ [v [ [_]√ [up]p]]vp
↔
a light blanket’/ [n[_]√]
{... other meanings in other contexts...}
↔
‘throw’/ elsewhere
(40)
LF instructions for samba-cancão ‘boxers’
a.
√243
↔
“boxers”/[[n[_]√] [√ 38]n]nP
b.
√38
↔
“boxers”/ [[n[√ 243] [ _ ]n]nP
(41)
BP
a.
bolsa-sanduiche
financial.aid+sandwich
‘financial aid to graduate students visit a foreign university’
b.
banana-maçã
banana+apple
‘Latundan banana
c.
cão-salsicha
dog+sausage
‘dachshund’
(42)
LF instructions for bolsa-sanduiche ‘scholarship to visit a foreign institution
a.
√59
“financial aid; scholarship”
b.
√540
“visiting period in a foreign institution”/)[n[V59]√[_]n]nP
“sandwich”/ elsewhere