Evidence of Validity and Perspectives for Resilience Scales in Sport

Bicalho, Camila Cristina Fonseca; Melo, Gislane Ferreira de; Noce, Franco

doi:10.1590/0102.3772e38214.en

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Behavioral Sciences • Psic.: Teor. e Pesq. 38 • 2022 • https://doi.org/10.1590/0102.3772e38214.en copy

Evidence of Validity and Perspectives for Resilience Scales in Sport

Evidências de Validade e Perspectivas para Escalas de Resiliência no Esporte

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

The aim of this review was to identify the scales used to measure resilience in athletes and to assess their psychometric and semantic adaptations for the sporting context. An electronic search was conducted in six databases, for 2008-2019, and 43 articles were selected. The results showed 11 scales applied to evaluate resilience in athletes. In the semantic field, 11 factors were identified, conceptually different, that define the property of the psychological system for sports resilience. This study concluded that scales identified in literature to assess athletes’ resilience have been used indiscriminately. Only five had their psychometric properties evaluated for the sports context. Therefore, sport psychology lacks a sport-specific measure for resilience.

Keywords:
psychological assessment; sport psychology; athletes

Code	Year of publication	Authors	Objective	Scale to assess resilience	Number of Sample	Sample	Sport
1	2010	Hosseini & Besharat	Investigating the association of resilience with sport achievement and mental health in a sample of athletes.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	139	96 males and 43 females (23±2.38 years old)	Basketball, boxing, epic, football, handball, karate, run, swimming, taekwondo, volleyball, Vshv, water polo, wrestling.
2	2010	Nezhad & Besharat	Investigating the association of resilience and hardiness with sport achievement and mental health in a sample of athletes.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	139	96 males and 43 females (23±2.38 years old)	Basketball, boxing, epic, football, handball, karate, run, swimming, taekwondo, volleyball, Vshv, water polo, wrestling.
3	2012	Cevada et al.	Comparing resilience, quality of life, and anxiety in ex-athletes of artistic gymnastic and other sports with non-athletic individuals.	Resilience Scale	62	Male and Female (18 to 45 years old)	Artistic gymnastic and others not identified
4	2012	Galli & Reel	Examining adversarial growth in a sample of Division I NCAA athletes.	Posttraumatic Growth Inventory.	214	64 males and 150 females (20.79±1.55 years old)	Baseball, basketball, cross-country, diving, golf, gymnastics, soccer, skiing, softball, swimming, tennis, Track and field, volleyball, wrestling.
5	2014	García, Vallarino, & Monteiro	Describing resilience, optimism and burnout in judokas.	Resilience Scale	45	36 males and 9 females (19.95±5.34 years old)	Judo
6	2014	Cardoso & Sacomori	Examining resilience in the specific subgroup of Brazilian competitive athletes with physical disabilities	Resilience Scale	208	150 males and 58 females (29.86±7.45 and 30.53±10.38 years old)	Basketball, rowing, swimming, table tennis, tennis, track and field, weightlifting.
7	2014	Belem, Caruzzo, Nascimento, Vieira & Vieira	Analyzing the impact of coping strategies on the resilience of beach volleyball athletes.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	48	24 males and 24 females (18±1.3 years old old)	Beach volleyball
8	2015	Boghrabadi, Arabameri, & Sheikh	Comparing the resilience and stress coping strategies among the elite team and individual athletes, and non-athletes.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	180	Gender not identified (22.7±2.9 years old)	Archery, Badminton, basketball, handball, karate, Volleyball.
9	2015	Gillham, Gillham, & Hansem	Examining relationships among coaching success, servant leadership, team cohesion, athlete resilience and social behaviors.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10	322	130 males. 183 females and 9 not reporting (19.7±1.8 years old)	Badminton, basketball, cross-country, curling, golf, ice hockey, soccer, running, volleyball.
10	2015	Martin, Byrd, Watts, & Dent	Examining the ability of three related but distinct positive grit, hardiness, and resilience to predict sport engagement and life satisfaction.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	75	74 males and 1 female (37±11.01 years old)	Wheelchair basketball
11	2016	Cuberos, Castro-Sanchez, Espejo-Garcés & Ortega	Determining resilient scores to athletes of different levels and sports modalities and relate the resilience scores, establishing patterns for this quality-ability depending on the sport practiced.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	39	Males (22.62±4.14 years old)	Football, handball, skiing.
12	2016	Lu et al.	Examining the conjunctive effects of athletes' resilience and coaches' social support on the relationship between life stress and burnout.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	218	159 males and 59 females (20.04±1.32 years old)	Archery, baseball, basketball, taekwondo, tennis, track and field.
13	2016	Nicholls, Morley, & Perry	Assessing the relevance Model of Motivational Dynamics to infer those peers influence behavioral engagement levels, which in turn is linked to coping and resilience among an athletic population.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10	351	178 males and 173 females (16.15±4.28 years old)	Individual and team sport.
14	2016	Pedro	Exploring the relations between wrestlers’ resilience levels and engagement perception.	Resilience Scale	20	17 males and 3 females (16.8±1.96 years old)	Wrestlers
15	2016	Vallarino & Reche	Describing the prevalence and relationship between the symptoms of burnout, resilience and optimism in women hockey players	Resilience Scale	130	Females (18.5±4.3years old)	Field hockey
16	2016	García-Secades et al.	Analyzing the relationship among resilient qualities and coping strategies.	Resilience Scale	235	126 males and 109 females (20.7±4.3 years old)	Athletics, cycling, gymnastics, handball, soccer, rugby, triathlon, volleyball.
17	2016	Ueno & Suzuki	Investigating the relationship between resilience and burnout among Japanese athletes.	Resilience Scale for University Athletes	63	24males and 39 females (19.4±1.1 years old)	Badminton, baseball, lacrosse, softball, track and field.
18	2016	Bingol & Bayansalduz	Examining the exercise dependence level and psychological resilience of the athletes in different sport branches in terms of gender, sport branches and sports participation types as individual or team sports.	Ego Resiliency Scale	777	464males and 33 females (22.72±3.02 years old)	Basketball, boxing, football, handball, muay thai, taekwondo, volleyball, wrestling.
19	2016	Sánchez et al.,	Analyzing the relationships between resilience and sports injuries as a function of the competitive level.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	43	39 males and 4 females (8 athletes less than 19 years old. 19 athletes between 19-24years old and 16 athletes greater than 24 years old)	Football, handball, winter sports (ski and snowboard).
20	2016	Laborde, Guillén, & Mosley	Investigating differences on positive PTLID (i.e., perseverance, positivity, resilience, self-esteem, and self-efficacy) between athletes and non-athletes, and athletes from individual and team sports.	Ego Resiliency Scale	600 non-athlete and 600 athletes	Non-athlete= 300 males and 300 females (21.94 years old) Athlete=300 males and 300 females (21.45 years old)	Archery, athletics, badminton, basketball, beach-volley, boxing, canary wrestling, cycling, fencing, field hockey, golf, gymnastics, handball, indoor soccer, judo, jump swimming, karate, padel, rhythmic gymnastics, roller hockey, rugby, sailing, soccer, surf, synchronized swimming, swimming, table tennis, taekwondo, tennis, triathlon, volleyball, water-polo, weight-lifting, windsurfing.
21	2016	Meggs et al.	Assessing resilience by a response to stress/adversity, including a physiological marker of perceived stress, a measure of resilience protective factors and a measure of performance as an indicator of adaptation following stress.	Academic Resilience Scale	41	27 males and 14 females (15.2 years old)	Swimming
22	2016	Cowden, Meyer-Weitz, & Asante	Investigating the relationships between mental toughness, resilience, and stress among competitive.	Resilience Scale for Adults	351	185 males and 166 females (28.9±13.87 years old)	Tennis
23	2016	Cowden & Meyer-Weitz	Investigating the relationships among the self-reflection and self-insight components of self-awareness, and resilience and stress in competitive South African tennis players.	Resilience Scale for Adults	333	175 male and 158 females (29.09±14.0 years old)	Tennis
24	2017	Secades et al.	Analyzing how the resilient profile influences the recovery-stress levels of competitive athletes.	Resilience Scale	235	126 males and 109 females (20.07±4.3 years old)	Athletics, cycling, gymnastics, handball, rugby, soccer, volleyball, triathlon.
25	2017	Ueno & Oshio	Examining the relationship among personality traits, day-to-day resilience, and athletes’ resilience among Japanese athletes.	Resilience Scale for University Athletes	165	57 males and 108 females (19.4±1.2 years old)	Not identified
26	2017	Prats, Ortega, & González	Determining and analyzing the psychometric properties of AF5 and CD-RISC in an adolescent population of female basketball players; Describing and analyzing the existing relationships of self-concept and its dimensions; resilience and its categories and physical sports variables; Specifying the effect of hours of regular training and position in basketball on psychosocial dimensions (self-concept and resilience).	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	74	Female (14.5±0.997 years old)	Basketball
27	2017a	Ortega et al.	Establishing and analyzing the relationship between resilience, anxiety states and sports injuries, taking into account the level of competition.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	185	167 males and 18 females (21.15±4.85 years old)	Soccer
28	2017b	Ortega et al.	Determining and analyzing the relationships between motivational climate, physical self-concept and resilience, based on gender.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-25	148	86 males and 62 Females (23.09±6.731 years old)	Judo
29	2017	Deen, Turner, & Wong	Examining the REBT efficacy of decreasing self-reported irrational beliefs (iBs) and raising self-reported resilience levels.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10	5	3 males and 2 females (19.7±3.14 years old)	Squash players
30	2017	Juarros et al.	Analyzing the influence of internal training load on the perception of stress and recovery levels, as well as the possible modulating role played by resilience and optimism in the state of the swimmers during tapering stage.	Resilience Scale	82	males and 39 females (15.79±2.7 years old)	Swimming
31	2018	Pedro & Veloso	Exploring within Self-Determination Theory framework, coaches’ autonomy support and athletes’ engagement and their relationship and conribution towards resilience.	Resilience Scale	177	99 males and 78 females (16.36±3.79 years old)	Acrobatic gymnastic, aerobic gymnastic, artistic gymnastic, judo, soccer, trampoline gymnastic, volleyball, wrestling.
32	2018	Reche et al.	Identifying the prevalence and relationship between resilience and optimism in competitive fencers; and its relationship with variables such as age category, gender and sport level; in favor of establishing intervention strategies in athletes at their different levels and dedication.	Resilience Scale	87	52 males and 35 females (25.2±10.6 years old)	Fencing
33	2018	González et al.	Investigating hypothesized resilient responses by assessing resilient characteristics, inducing stress, and examining cortisol, affect, and performance.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10	116	Male and Female	Not identified
34	2018	Wagstaff et al.	Examining the extent to which the frequency of organizational stressors encountered relate to burnout and whether psychological resilience qualities moderate any such relationship in athletes and coaches.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10	372 athletes, 91 coaches	216 males and 156 females’ athletes (21±5.91 years old) 69 males and 22 females’ coaches (31.1±12.3years old)	Archery, basketball, cycling, equestrian, football, golf, rugby, rowing, tennis.
35	2018	Drew & Matthews	Investigating the prevalence of depressive and anxiety symptoms within student-athletes and to examine protective factors which may act as a buffer against mental ill-health.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10	185	120 males and 65 females (20.77±0.50 years old)	Basketball, camogie, canoeing, equestrian, gaelic football, golf, hurling, hockey, rugby, soccer, swimming, track and field, triathlon.
36	2019	González, Castillo, & Balaguer	Analyzing the relationship between resilience, basic psychological need satisfaction and thwarting and the quality of the sport experience, specifically taking as indicators of the latter the feelings of enjoyment and boredom in sports practice.	Resilience Scale	661	Female (14.74±3.91 years old)	Football, basketball
37	2019	Mohammadi	Evaluating the effect of coping styles on the relationship between psychological resilience and perceived stress among injured athletes.	Psychological Resilience Questionnaire (validation not reported)	300	Not identified	Not identified
38	2019	Codonhato et al.	Studying the relationship between resilience, stress and injury occurrence in the context of elite sports.	Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10	8	Female (20.4±2.5 years old)	Rhythmic gymnastics

39	2019	Edwards et al.	Providing a brief, evidence based, evaluative report on resilience workshops for professional rugby players.	Brief Resilience Scale	328	Male (25±4.7 years old)	Rugby
40	2019	Hrozanova & Pallesen	Implementing a psychological perspective on sleep quality in athletes, by investigating the Extent to which gender, mental resilience, negative affect, worry and perceived stress, uniquely contribute to sleep quality in a large sample of junior athletes.	Resilience Scale for Adults	632	317 males and 315 females (18±0.9 years old)	Not identified
41	2019	Peña & Briceño	Identifying the variables of resilience, self-esteem, coping and social support in a population of university athletes and check whether there is a relationship between these variables and sports injuries based on the presence or absence of injury.	Resilience Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents	137	73 males and 64 females (20.65±1.95 years old)	Aerobic gymnastics, baseball, basketball, fencing, handball, rugby, soccer, softball, volleyball, weightlifting.
42	2019	Sorkkila et al.	Examining whether there are different kinds of profiles that can be identified among student‐athletes and how resilience and the likelihood of dropping out from sport or school differ between the profiles.	Brief Resilience Scale	491	251 males and 240 females (16±0.17 years old)	Football, gymnastics, ice hockey, skiing.
43	2019	Yang et al	Understanding the structural relationship among resilience, psychological skills and performance of high school taekwondo athletes	Adolescent Resilience Scale	359	237 males and 122 females	Taekwondo

Scales used to evaluate resilience in athletes	Nº of Items	Likert scale	Validation sample	N	Age (years)	Country	Adap Sp.	Studies
Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 10¹	10	4	Undergraduate students.	532	18.8	USA	Yes	9,13,29,33, 34,35,38
Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 25²	25	7	G1-General population, G2-outpatients, G3-psychiatric patients, G4-generalized anxiety disorder, G5 and G6 clinical trial sample.	G1=577 G2=139 G3=43 G4=25 G5=22 G6= 22	43.8	USA	Yes	1,2,7,8,10,11, 12,19,26, 27, 28
Resilience Scale ³	25	7	Community shelter for older adults	810	71.1	USA	Yes	3,5,6,14,15,16,24,30,31,32,36
Post Traumatic Growth Inventory ⁴	21	5	Undergraduate students	604	17-25	USA	No	4
Resilience Scale for University Athletes⁵	24	5	University students	377	19.7 ±1.20	Japan	Yes	17,25
Ego Resilience 89 Scale⁶	14	4	General population	210	18-23	USA	No	18,20
Academic Resilience Scale⁷	6	7	High school students	412	11-12	Australia	No	21
Brief Resilience Scale⁸	6	5	G1 and G2- undergraduate student, G3- cardiac rehabilitation patients, G4-women with fibromyalgia and group control.	G1=128 G2=64 G3=112 G4=50	G1=20.4 (±4.0) G2=19.8 (±3.0) G3=62.8 (±10.5) G4=47.3 (±8.2)	USA	Yes	39,42
Adolescent Resilience Scale ⁹	27	3	High school students	G1=618 G2=796 G3=420	No identif.	Korea	No	43
Resilience Scale for Adults¹⁰	33	7	G1-Belgian students, G2-Norwegian students	G1=363G2=315	G1=18.9 (±1.5) G2=22.13(±3.27)	Belgium	No	22,23,40
Resilience Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents¹¹	32	5	Children and adolescents	542	11 to 13 years	Mexico	No	41

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http://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113... ); (3) Wagnild & Young (1993Wagnild, G.M., & Young, H.M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement,1(2), 165-178. ); (4) Tedeschi & Calhoun (1996Tedeschi, R.G., & Calhoun, L.G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma.Journal of Traumatic Stress,9(3),455-471. http://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090305
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http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02010... ); (14) Pedro (2016Pedro, S.D. (2016). Athletes engagement, resilience, and rate of perceived exertion on Portuguese national-and international-level wrestlers. International Journal of Wrestling Science, 6(1), 5-10. http://doi.org/10.1080/21615667.2016.1166299
http://doi.org/10.1080/21615667.2016.116... ); (15) Vallarino & Reche (2016Vallarino, T., & Reche, C. (2016). Burnout, resiliencia y optimismo en el hockey sobre hierba femenino. Cuadernos de psicología del deporte, 16(3), 73-78. ); (16) García-Secades et al. (2016García-Secades, X., Molinero, O., Salguero, A., Ruíz, R.B., De La Vega, R., & Márquez, S. (2016). Relationship between resilience and coping strategies in competitive sport. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 122(1), 336-349. http://doi.org/10.1177/0031512516631056
http://doi.org/10.1177/0031512516631056... ); (17) Ueno & Suzuki (2016Ueno, Y., & Suzuki, T. (2016). Longitudinal study on the relationship between resilience and burnout among Japanese athletes. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 16(4), 1137. http://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2016.04182
http://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2016.04182... ); (18) Bingol & Bayansalduz (2016Bingol, E., & Bayansalduz, M. (2016). Evaluating the level of exercise dependence and psychological resilience of athletes from different branches. The Anthropologist, 24(3), 827-835. http://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2016.11892079
http://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2016.118... ); (19) Sánchez et al. (2016Sánchez, M.C., Cuberos, R.C., Ortega, F.Z., & Garcés, T.E. (2016). Niveles de resiliência en base a modalidad, nivel y lesiones deportivas. RETOS. Nuevas Tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 29, 162-165. ); (20) Laborde et al. (2016Laborde, S., Guillén, F., & Mosley, E. (2016). Positive personality-trait-like individual differences in athletes from individual-and team sports and in non-athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 26, 9-13. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.05.009
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016... ); (21) Meggs et al. (2016Meggs, J., Golby, J., Mallett, C., Gucciardi, D., & Polman, R. (2016). The cortisol awakening response and resilience in elite swimmers.International Journal of Sports Medicine,37(2), 169-174. http://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1559773
http://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1559773... ); (22) Cowden et al. (2016Cowden, R.G., Meyer-Weitz, A., & Asante, K.O. (2016). Mental toughness in competitive tennis: relationships with resilience and stress. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 320. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00320
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Resilience Scales	RMSE	fit, χ 2	CFI	Cronbach’s Alpha (α)
Connor Davidson-Resilience Scale 10 (1 Factor) ¹	.063 90% .045 and .082	80.10	.947	≥ .70
Connor Davidson-Resilience Scale 25 (1 Factor)²	.085, 90% .079 and.091	913.66	.753
Connor Davidson-Resilience Scale 22 (1 Factor)³	.086	699.98	.793
Connor Davidson-Resilience Scale 25 (5 Factors)⁴	0.075 (90% 0.70 and .081)	916,09	.814
Resilience Scale (2 factors)⁵	.071	932.69	.909	Global= .86 Factor 1=.86 Factor 2=.62
Resilience Scale ⁶	-	-	-	Factor1=.89 Factor2= .59
Resilience Scale (2 factors)⁷	.071	867.991	.915	Factor 1=.808 Factor 2=.765
Resilience Scale for University Athletes⁸	.07	5.41	.98	Global = .80
Brief Resilience Scale⁹	.07	18.32	.993

Scale factors	Scales used to evaluate Resilience in Athletes (number of items by factor)
Scale factors	CR-Risc-10	CD-Risc-25	ER	PTGI	RSUA	ERS	ARS	BRS	AdRS	RSA	RQCA
Unifactorial	10					14	6	6
Personal competence, high standards, and tenacity		8	17	5						4
Confidence in one’s instincts, autonomy, tolerance of negative affect		7									14
Self-control, strength and personal growth		3		4					7	10
Positive adaptation, new possibilities, acceptance of self and life		5	8	3					7
Spirituality Influences		2		2
Positive relationship with others, social competence				7						6	7
Athletic motivation and challenge					4
Athletic mental toughness					4
Athletic self-understanding					4
Athletic physical toughness					4
Environmental domain (social support teammates, family and friends)					8				7	13^*	11

Notes.^* social resources and family cohesion; CD-Risc-10-Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007Campbell‐Sills, L., & Stein, M.B. (2007). Psychometric analysis and refinement of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD‐RISC): Validation of a 10‐item measure of resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 1019-1028. http://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20271
http://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20271... ); CD-Risc-25-Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003Connor, K.M., & Davidson, J.R. (2003) Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-Risc). Depress and Anxiety, 18(2), 76-82. http://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
http://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113... ); ER- Resilience Scale (Wagnild & Young, 1993Wagnild, G.M., & Young, H.M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement,1(2), 165-178. ); PTGI - Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996Tedeschi, R.G., & Calhoun, L.G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma.Journal of Traumatic Stress,9(3),455-471. http://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090305
http://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090305... ); RSUA- Resilience Scale for University Athletes (Ueno & Shimizu, 2012Ueno, Y., & Shimizu, Y. (2012). Development of psychological resilience scale for university athletes. Japanese Journal of Sports Psychiatry, 9, 68-85. http://doi.org/10.11560/jahp.27.1_20
http://doi.org/10.11560/jahp.27.1_20... ); ERS-Ego Resilience Scale89 (Block & Kremen, 1996Block, J., & Kremen, A.M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,70(2), 349-361. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.349
http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.34... ); ARS-Academic Resilience Scale (Martin & Marsh, 2006Martin, A.J., & Marsh, H.W. (2006). Academic resilience and its psychological and educational correlates: A construct validity approach. Psychology in the Schools, 43, p.267-282. http://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20149
http://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20149... ); BRS-Brief Resilience Scale (Smith et al., 2008Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The Brief Resilience Scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194-200. http://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972
http://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972... ); AdRs-Adolescent Resilience Scale (Shin et al., 2009Shin, W.Y., & Kim, M.K., & Kim, J.H. (2009) Pesquisa de Jovens na Coréia. Jornal de Estudos da Juventude Coreana, 55. ), RSA-Resilience Scale for Adults (Friborg et al., 2005Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J.H., & Martinussen, M. (2003). A new rating scale for adult resilience: What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 2(2), 65-76. http://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.143
http://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.143... ); RQCA-Resilience Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (Gonzales-Arratia, 2016González-Arratia, L.F.N.I. (2016). Resiliencia y personalidad en niños y adolescentes. Cómo desarrollarse en tiempos de crisis (2a ed.). EON/UAEM.).

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