Influence of Tourism Centers on the Diversity of Uses, Management Practices, and Traditional Knowledge of the Buriti Palm (Mauritia flexuosa)Abstract
The sustainable use of non-timber forest products is essential for conserving biodiversity while supporting the livelihoods of traditional communities. The research was conducted in the Lençóis Maranhenses region (Maranhão State, Brazil), an area characterized by intense tourism activity and recognized as one of the main centers of buriti (Mauritia flexuosa) fiber extraction in Northeast Brazil. These features make the region a privileged setting to understand: how proximity to tourism hubs affects the diversity of uses, management practices, and the preservation of traditional knowledge associated with the buriti palm? Semi-structured interviews were conducted with extractives in municipalities with different levels of access to the tourism market. The municipality with the highest tourist influx showed lower diversity of uses (16 uses; H = 60.07; p < 0.01), a predominance of commercial applications (UDV for food = 0.645), a shorter interval between leaf collections (52 days), and a higher incidence of destructive harvesting practices (33%). In contrast, municipalities less integrated into tourism routes preserved a greater diversity of uses. Management practices were predominantly non-destructive, although signs of erosion of these practices were observed in areas with moderate tourism influence. Women play a central role throughout the production chain. It is concluded that tourism, although it enhances income generation and cultural visibility, promotes economic specialization and weakens traditional knowledge, increasing the risks of unsustainable resource use. Conservation strategies should integrate the strengthening of local economies with the recognition of traditional knowledge and the regulation of resource exploitation in territories under tourism pressure.
Keywords:
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs); Local ecological knowledge (LEK); Socioecological sustainability Ethnobotany
INTRODUCTION
The term Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) refers to all biological materials other than timber that are harvested from forests for human use, such as fruits, fibers, seeds, and resins (Belcher et al., 2005; Shackleton et al., 2018). The use and management of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have played a central role in the subsistence strategies and income generation of traditional communities across various tropical regions (Rosenveld et al., 2024; Shackleton et al., 2018). Among the factors influencing the intensification of plant extraction, proximity to tourism markets stands out as a phenomenon that has reshaped traditional management practices and the socioeconomic dynamics of local populations (Berkes, 2018).
Tourism, especially in environmentally sensitive territories, increases the demand for handicrafts, regional foods, and other biodiversity-based products, thereby raising the economic value of NTFPs while simultaneously generating additional pressure on natural resources (Bachi; Carvalho-Ribeiro, 2023; Belcher et al., 2020).
In this context, species such as the buriti palm (Mauritia flexuosa), whose exploitation involves fruits, fibers, and leaves, have gained prominence in tourism-oriented value chains, as observed in areas near the tourist hubs of the Lençóis Maranhenses region (Homma et al., 2012).
Although the expansion of consumer markets can enhance household incomes and promote the cultural recognition of traditional knowledge, several studies warn that unplanned intensification of resource extraction compromises the ecological sustainability of these resources, especially when traditional management practices are replaced by short-term commercial strategies (Shanley et al., 2011; Toledo; Barrera-Bassols, 2017). Furthermore, there is evidence that tourism can both strengthen and weaken local ecological knowledge (LEK), depending on how communities are integrated into the value chains (Berkes, 2018; Shackleton et al., 2018). The term Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) refers to the cumulative body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs held by traditional communities regarding local ecosystems, species behavior, and sustainable management practices (Berkes, 2018; Toledo; Barrera-Bassols, 2017).
In this context, it becomes essential to understand how proximity to tourism centers influences the management of NTFPs, particularly in territories where the exploitation of native species represents a direct interface between conservation, the local economy, and cultural heritage. Analyzing these relationships is crucial to supporting public policies and sustainable management initiatives that reconcile the strengthening of traditional economies with biodiversity conservation.
This study is grounded in the perspective of political ecology and ethnoecology, considering non-timber forest products (NTFPs) as central elements of socioecological systems where market pressures, cultural practices, and traditional knowledge interact under conditions of tourism expansion (Berkes, 2018; Toledo; Barrera-Bassols, 2017). By adopting this framework, we aim to reinforce the interpretative basis of the analysis, highlighting how tourism simultaneously generates economic opportunities and risks of knowledge erosion and resource overexploitation.
M. flexuosa markets in Brazil provide primary and supplemental income sources for vulnerable groups, especially in regions where income is irregular. The growing market for M. flexuosa young leaf fiber in the Lençóis Maranhenses region of Northeast Brazil is one example of how increasing demand for a particular forest product has led to different economic pressures on use and management to supply the local and national tourist market in Brazil (IPEA, 2016). Despite the growth in demand, communities in the region continue to preserve traditional characteristics of management, culture, and routine around the palm. Indeed, family networks can be an important predictor as to how local people access resources. The objective of our work was to analyze how proximity to tourism centers influences the use, and management of non-timber forest products derived from the buriti palm (Mauritia flexuosa), with emphasis on the socioeconomic dynamics and traditional practices of extractivist communities in the Lençóis Maranhenses region.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Area of study
This study was conducted in municipalities (Barreirinhas, Paulino Neves, and Tutóia) located in the Lençóis Maranhenses region of the Maranhão state of Brazil (ICMBio, 2022).
The freshwater gallery forests are interspersed with swamp forests dominated by M. flexuosa, which is known locally as buriti (Brasil, 2002). The economy of the Lençóis Maranhenses region is based on general and agricultural services (IBGE, 2019).
Maranhão state produces the largest tons of extracted buriti fiber in the Northeast of Brazil (IBGE, 2019). The municipalities of Barreirinhas and Tutóia were the third and fourth largest fiber extractors respectively in Brazil in 2019, extracting 78 and 39 tons of buriti fibers respectively that year (IBGE, 2019). The municipality of Paulino Neves is located between Barreirinhas and Tutóia (39.6 kilometers from the center of Barreirinhas; 33 kilometers from the center of Tutóia), and the vegetal extraction of buriti is also a major source of family income in Paulino Neves (IPEA, 2016). These three municipalities have different marketing possibilities, although Barreirinhas presents the best market conditions because it is the governing center for the region and has the most developed tourism, transportation, healthcare, and economic infrastructure (IPEA, 2016). Tutoia has moderate tourism influence. In comparison to Barreirinhas and Tutoia, Paulino Neves receives a smaller proportion of tourists who might purchase products made with buriti fibers, so many of the products made in Paulino Neves are sold directly to merchants in Barreirinhas. Tutóia, on the other hand, sells most of their buriti fiber products to merchants in Barreirinhas (IPEA, 2016).
Collection of ethnobotanical data
The Ethnobotanical data refers to information that documents the diverse interactions between humans and plants, encompassing their uses, cultural significance, and management practices (Albuquerque et al., 2014; Shanley et al., 2011).
There is no existing data on the population of extractives and artisans in the study region. Therefore, a snowball sampling technique, which is often used to identify hidden populations, was used to identify our sample group. Snowball sampling consists of one respondent indicating another until informants who meet pre-determined selection criteria are found (Goodman, 1961). The selection criteria that we used in the snowball sampling where: individuals over 18 years old, individuals who extracted buriti fiber, and individuals living in communities involved in buriti fiber. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with all individuals of the sample group between August 2014 and December 2015. The interview was formulated to characterize the uses of the buriti palm: parts of the plant used, techniques and frequency of leaf collection, and other parts extracted by palm. The socioeconomic data of the respondents collected included sex, age, education, distance from home to the point of sale, type of residential area (rural or urban), monthly family income, and whether or now the owned or did not own the leaf collection area.
This study was approved by the Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa com Seres Humanos da Universidade Federal do Piauí (Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Piauí), under permit number 886.193 and Sistema Nacional de Gestão do Patrimônio Genético e do Conhecimento Tradicional Associado (National System for the Management of Genetic Heritage and Associated Traditional Knowledge) (AD0CB23).
Data analysis
The importance of M. flexuosa to extractives was determined by the use-diversity value (UDV) index, which measures the importance of use categories and how they contribute to the local use value. It is obtained from the number of recorded citations in a use category divided by the total number of citations in all categories (Silva et al., 2014); a higher value indicates more importance of a use category. The uses cited by respondents were divided into seven categories: food, handicraft, home utensils, construction, cosmetic, regional culture and others. The plant part value (PPV) index, which measures the degree of consistency among informants about the parts used, was also evaluated. It was obtained from the total number of citations reported for each part of the plant divided by the total number of citations for all plant parts (Silva et al., 2014).
Generalized linear model (GLM) analysis was used to examine whether the independent variables (gender, age, schooling, residential distance from the commercial area, residence place [rural or urban], and monthly household income [total value in Brazilian Real (R$) of the income from all household members per month]. The exchange rate of dollars during the period of data collection fluctuated between R$ 3.39/US$ to around R$ 3.87/US$], and income from sale of products derived from M. flexuosa per month) were correlated with the dependent variable (number of uses and collection practices frequency and quantity of leaves extracted per palm). The explanatory power of each independent variable (R2) was verified by forward stepwise linear regression.
Differences between communities regarding the number of uses, number of leaves extracted per palm and frequency of collection per palm were examined by the Kruskal-Wallis’s test (H), followed by the student-Newman-Keuls test. Differences between the strategies to obtain buriti fruit were tested using the Chi-square goodness-of-fit test. Statistical tests were performed using BioEstat 5.0 software and p < 0.05 was considered to indicate statistical difference.
The Kruskal-Wallis test, Student-Newman-Keuls test, and Chi-square goodness-of-fit test refer to non-parametric and parametric statistical methods commonly used in ethnobotanical and ecological research to assess group differences and compare observed frequencies (Silva et al., 2014; Zar, 1999).
RESULTS
Socioeconomic characterization of extractives and uses of M. flexuosa
In the study area, 274 extractives of M. flexuosa were identified. In Barreirinhas, we interviewed 146 women (76 %) and 45 men (24%). The age of these informants ranged from 18 to 77 years. The monthly household income ranged from R$ 30.00 to R$ 5,000.00. The minority (27.16%) received more than one minimum monthly salary (R$ 788.00 per month). The monthly income from the sale of handicrafts ranged from R$ 10.00 to R$ 5,000.00, of which only 4.52% earned more than one minimum wage. Barreirinhas extractivists provided 465 citations of use and identified 16 different uses for M. flexuosa (Table 1). Knowledge about uses and extractives techniques was acquired from ancestors (90%) or from neighbors through the oral transmission of knowledge
A total of 51 extractives were identified in Paulino Neves, 33 women (65%) and 18 men (35%). Their ages ranged from 18 to 73 years, and their monthly household income ranged from R$ 40.00 to R$ 1,500.00, with only 11.76% receiving above a minimum wage. The monthly income obtained from the sale of handicrafts ranged from R$ 10.00 to R$ 300.00, values below the minimum wage. These extractives provided 169 citations and identified 22 different uses for buriti palm (Table 1).
In Tutóia, we interviewed 32 extractives, 26 women (81%) and 6 men (19%). Their ages ranged from 18 to 89 years, and the monthly household income ranged from R$ 50.00 to R$ 2,201.00. Among which, 9.37% receive above a minimum wage. The monthly income from the sale of handicrafts ranged from R $ 40.00 to R $ 250.00, less than the minimum wage. The Tutóia extractives provided 242 citations and identified 45 different uses (Table 1). Both in Tutóia and in Paulino Neves, knowledge about the uses and techniques of extractives was acquired only with parents and grandparents by 99% of the informants and the others with neighbors.
In these municipalities, the fiber extracted from the leaf blade was the main use, followed by consumption of candy and raw fruit (Table 1). Significant pairwise differences were found between the numbers of uses cited in the three municipalities. Barreirinhas informants presented a lower diversity of uses (16) than Paulino Neves (22) and Tutóia (45) (p < 0.01; H = 60.07) and Tutóia was greater than Paulino Neves (p < 0.0001; H = 60.07).
Considering the diversity of uses (UDV), the categories of handicraft and human food were most important in Barreirinhas and Paulino Neves compared to the other categories (Table 2).
In Tutóia, the construction category was the most important, followed by home utensils. Use for cosmetics was an important category only in Barreirinhas, while regional culture was unique to Tutóia.
The interviewed extractives demonstrated knowledge of four different parts of M. flexuosa (Table 3). Fruits were most cited in Barreirinhas and Paulino Neves. In Tutóia, leaf blade of immature leaves and petiole of immature and mature leaves were the most used parts. Trunk was not mentioned in Barreirinhas.
Monthly household income for respondents had a linear correlation with the number of known uses in Barreirinhas (R2 = 0.366, p = 0.0005), suggesting that people with higher monthly income use more buriti products. In Paulino Neves (R2 = 0.077, p = 0.818) and Tutóia (R2 = 0.266, p = 0.436), the variables evaluated did not influence the number of M. flexuosa uses.
Collection and management of M. flexuosa
One hundred and thirteen extractives, corresponding to 62% of the respondents in Barreirinhas, reported extracting young leaves and fruits. The remaining 78 (38%) preferred buying these items instead of collecting them. In Paulino Neves, 45 (88%) respondents reported extracting immature and mature leaves, fruits, and trunk and 6 (11.2%) preferred buying the leaves, trunk and fruits for their own use. In Tutóia, 24 (75%) respondents collect young and mature leaves, fruits, and trunk, although 8 (25%) of these respondents stated they extract these plant parts only when not having money to buy them. In the three study municipalities, all women collected leaf blades and petiole of immature palms, while the men collected the leaves, fruits and steam of tall adult and immature palms. The collection of the leaves occurs throughout the year.
In Barrerinhas, 93 (49%) respondents mentioned extracting young leaves and fruits only along the margins of Preguiça River, which runs through the municipality and serves as the main waterway for the region. The other informants reported traveling to Paulino Neves to obtain the needed leaves. The extractives in Paulino Neves and Tutóia extract on private lands where they live.
Barreirinhas respondents noted that they remove one immature leaf (1.02 ± 0.19) from each palm, performing the next collection on the same plant after a time interval of 52 days (52.0 ± 26.7). In Paulino Neves, one leaf (1.09 ± 0.30) per plant is collected on average every 63 days (63.3 ± 37.0). In Tutóia, one (1.03 ± 0.20) leaf is extracted per palm and the time interval for the same plant is 61 days (61.9 ± 21.5).
No statistically significant differences between the average number of leaves collected per palm among the municipalities were found (p > 0.05; H = 7.71). On the other hand, the leaf collection time interval presented statistically significant differences (p < 0.05; H = 6.77). The time interval for exploiting the same palm in Barreirinhas is lower than in Tutóia (p = 0.025; H = 4.69) and Paulino Neves (p = 0.075; H = 3.59). No differences were observed between Tutóia and Paulino Neves (p = 0.520; H = 0.26).
The respondents of the three study municipalities mentioned they use nondestructive collection, removing the immature leaves only after the petiole is exposed. However, 33% (36) of respondents in Barreirinhas, 4% (2) in Paulino Neves and 4% (1) in Tutóia reported they also perform destructive collection, before the petiole is fully exposed. In the three study municipalities, the collection of trunks was reported to occur only after the natural death of the palm.
Statistically significant differences were observed in the strategies that respondents adopted to obtain fruits in the municipalities (X² = 25.32; df = 2; p < 0.0001). Two fruit collection strategies were identified by respondents from Barreirinhas, with no statistically significant differences between them (X² = 1.96; df = 1.69; p = 0.1615). Collecting fruits from the ground that had naturally fallen (57%) was the most frequent strategy, followed by buying the fruit (43%). In Paulino Neves and Tutóia, extractives indicated two strategies to obtain fruits. In Paulino Neves, collecting fruits from the ground that had naturally fallen (88%) was the most common practice, followed by buying fruits (12%) (X² = 57.76; df = 1; p < 0.0001). In Tutóia, 75% of respondents collected the fruit on the ground and 25% preferred to buy them (X² = 25.00; df = 1.02; p < 0.0001). Finally, only in Tutóia did gender influence leaf (young and mature leaves) management (R2 = 0.520; p = 0.0430), where it was observed that women collect leaves more frequently than men (p < 0.05). However, the number of leaves collected was independent of any studied socioeconomic factors for all municipalities (R2 = 0.062; p > 0.05).
DISCUSSION
Traditional Knowledge
As the demand for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) increases, there's a tendency for communities to specialize economically often at the expense of broader traditional knowledge. In places with more market influence, for example, greater market integration has been linked to fewer known uses of the plant. This trend has been discussed in literature, where market-driven economies push extractives to focus on high-value uses, potentially narrowing their broader ecological understanding (Belcher et al., 2005).
However, the relationship with markets is not always straightforward. Some studies suggest that market access may also enhance knowledge, especially in wealthier communities (Campos et al., 2015). But in places with less market influence, where commercial demand is low, knowledge appears to be equally distributed regardless of income possibly due to daily, hands-on contact with the resource.
This suggests that lower market pressure may help preserve a more diverse body of traditional knowledge. Remote communities often serve as strongholds of biocultural memory (Davidson-Hunt; Berkes, 2003), where the daily use of plants strengthens the passing of knowledge across generations. It highlights the importance of protecting cultural landscapes where ecological wisdom is still alive and well (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2013).
The prominent use of M. flexuosa for construction and household utensils in Tutóia also illustrates its versatility in rural, low-income settings. Similar patterns are observed in other traditional societies, where plants are not only sources of food or craft materials but form part of the built environment, contributing to more resilient ways of living (Dawson, et al., 2024).
Notably, differences in the way people acquire the resource also reveal important dynamics. Around 38% of respondents in places with more market influence reported buying buriti rather than collecting it themselves, while in Tutóia, place with less market influence, this number was just 25%. Outsourcing extraction like this can weaken local ecological knowledge (LEK) as people become removed from the natural cues and traditional techniques that guide sustainable use (Moura et al., 2024).
Environmental Impacts of Harvesting
Several authors point out that easier access to tourism markets tends to intensify the exploitation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), leading to increased pressure on plant species with high commercial value, such as fibers, fruits, seeds, and palm-derived handicrafts (Bachi; Carvalho-Ribeiro, 2023; Shanley et al., 2011). In areas near tourist hubs, the demand for souvenirs, typical foods, and traditional crafts stimulates large-scale harvesting, often without proper management planning, which may compromise the regeneration of natural resources. For example, in Amazonian communities close to established markets, there has been an increase in the exploitation of species like Mauritia flexuosa, with reports of overharvesting of fruits to meet tourist demand, especially during peak periods (Barros et al., 2021). While many extractives follow responsible harvesting practices, signs of overexploitation are evident in areas with high market demand, like Barreirinhas. When the time between harvests becomes too short, palm regeneration is at risk, which can lead to long-term population declines (Sampaio et al., 2008).
Harvesting fruits can also reduce food sources for local wildlife, even when done non-destructively. There's a clear need for more research into the ecological consequences of such practices.
At the same time, the wide range of ways the plant is used in places with less market influence for tools, construction, and beyond highlights how traditional systems incorporate biodiversity into everyday life. This approach helps build more resilient livelihoods, particularly in communities facing economic vulnerability (Dawson et al., 2024)
This highlights the need to view NTFP exploitation not only through an ecological lens but also as part of larger socio-ecological systems, where economic specialization can generate risks of ecological imbalance (Homma, 2012; Spash, 2024). Strengthening community-based management and aligning with national biodiversity frameworks remain essential for mitigating such impacts (Fariss et al., 2022; Camillo, 2022).
Cultural Dimensions of Sustainability
Proximity to tourism markets can also generate positive effects by enhancing the cultural and economic recognition of NTFPs. Tourism can encourage traditional communities to maintain artisanal practices and adopt sustainable management strategies to differentiate their products and preserve cultural heritage, adding value to certified products or those associated with local identity (Belcher et al.,2020).
Studies in African and Latin American countries show that rural tourism and ecotourism create incentives for the sustainable use of NTFPs, provided they are integrated with public policies and technical training (Shackleton et al.,2018).
Cultural values, such as belief in guardian spirits, a sense of territorial identity, and the sharing of knowledge between generations influence how M. flexuosa is used and managed in Lençóis maranhenses in Paulino neves (Vieira et al. 2016). In places with less market influence, for instance, there is a clear respect for the plant’s natural life cycle, suggesting a deep-rooted environmental awareness. This reinforces the idea that attributing cultural value to certain species can support their long-term conservation (Sawadogo et al., 2022).
A striking example of this is the shared practice, across all communities, of only using palm trunks after the tree has died naturally. This unspoken rule reflects a community-based conservation ethic. Even in the absence of formal regulation, such behaviors resemble "cultural taboos" that exist in many traditional societies, where certain plant parts are not touched out of respect (Clement, 2006). These are part of a broader system of biocultural memory that regulates human-nature relations (Lévi-Strauss, 2024; Toledo; Barrera-Bassols, 2015). Such mechanisms reinforce community resilience and help sustain ecological practices under external pressures (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2013). These insights support the need for public policies that don’t just tolerate traditional knowledge but actively integrate it as a pathway to sustainability and income generation (Posey, 1996).
Gender and Extractivism
Women play a central role in buriti extraction and in crafting products from its materials. Across all study sites, they are often the ones collecting, processing, and transforming the plant, helping to sustain household incomes and strengthen cultural traditions (Barros et al., 2021).
Still, it’s vital that this participation happens under fair conditions. Women must have proper access to support policies, training, and dignified working conditions. Recent studies also highlight the essential role women play in keeping artisanal knowledge alive, often through domestic-scale production, and emphasize the need for government and stakeholder engagement in preserving these cultural practices (Bridgewater State University, 2023).
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
This study demonstrates that proximity to tourism hubs significantly reshapes the relationship between traditional communities and the buriti palm, fostering economic specialization while reducing the diversity of uses. Beyond confirming previously described patterns, our findings show that tourism in the Lençóis Maranhenses functions simultaneously as a driver of traditional knowledge erosion and as a source of income and cultural visibility. This paradox calls for a critical stance in public policy: regulating buriti exploitation, strengthening traditional management practices, and implementing mechanisms to ensure resource sustainability are urgent priorities. We also highlight the central role of women in this process and argue for policies that expand their autonomy and working conditions. Finally, we emphasize the need for future research to integrate long-term ecological and socioeconomic approaches to better understand the cumulative effects of tourism and to support conservation and development strategies that combine local economies, cultural heritage, and biodiversity.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data that support the findings of this study can be made available, upon reasonable request, from the corresponding author [Irlaine Rodrigues Vieira].
REFERENCES
-
ALBUQUERQUE, U. P.; CUNHA, L. V. F. C.; LUCENA, R. F. P.; ALVES, R. R. N. Methods and techniques in ethnobiology and ethnoecology. Springer, New York, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8636-7
» https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8636-7 -
BACHI, L.; CARVALHO-RIBEIRO, S. Markets for Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs): The Role of Community-Based Tourism (CBT) in Enhancing Brazil’s Sociobiodiversity. Forests, v. 14, n. 2, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020298
» https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020298 -
BARROS, F. B.; SOUSA, F. F.; ANDRADE, J. P.; RAMOS, F. M.; SILVA, C. V. Ethnoecology of miriti (Mauritia flexuosa, L.f.) fruit extraction in the Brazilian Amazon: knowledge and practices of riverine peoples contribute to the biodiversity conservation. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, v. 17, n. 3, p. 1-15, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-021-00445-w
» https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-021-00445-w - BELCHER, B.; RUDEL, T.; SCHROEDER, H. Non-Timber Forest Products and Livelihoods: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 2020.
-
BELCHER, B.; RUIZ-PEREZ, M.; ACHDIAWAN, R. Global patterns and trends in the use and management of commercial NTFs: implications for livelihoods and conservation. WORLD DEVELOPMENT, v. 33, n. 9, p. 1435-1452, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.10.007
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.10.007 -
BERKES, F. Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management. 5. ed. Routledge, 2018. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315114644-1
» https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315114644-1 -
BRASIL. 2002. Resolução Conama n° 303 de 20 de março de 2002. Available: https://licenciamento.cetesb.sp.gov.br/legislacao/federal/resolucoes/2002_Res_CONAMA_303.pdf Accessed on: 04 jun. 2025.
» https://licenciamento.cetesb.sp.gov.br/legislacao/federal/resolucoes/2002_Res_CONAMA_303.pdf - BRIDGEWATER STATE UNIVERSITY. Traditional arts, women, and cultural preservation: sustaining domestic industries through cultural policy. Journal of International Women's Studies, v. 24, n. 3, p. 112-126, 2023.
- CAMILLO, J. Mauritia flexuosa, Buriti. In: CORADIN, L.; CAMILLO, J.; VIEIRA, I. C. G. (org.). Espécies nativas da flora brasileira de valor econômico atual ou potencial. Brasilia: MMA, 2022.
-
CAMPOS, J. L. A.; SILVA, T. L. L.; ALBUQUERQUE, U. P.; PERONI, N.; ARAÚJO, E. L. Knowledge, use, and management of the babassu palm (Attalea speciosa Mart. Ex Spreng) in the Araripe Region (Northeastern Brazil). Economic Botany, v. 69, n. 3, p. 240-250, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-015-9315-x
» https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-015-9315-x -
CLEMENT, C. R. Fruit trees and the transition to food production in Amazonia. In: MCCLAY H (Ed.). Time and complexity in historical ecology: studies in the Neotropical lowlands. New York: Columbia University Press, p. 165-185, 2006. https://doi.org/10.7312/bale13562-009
» https://doi.org/10.7312/bale13562-009 -
DAVIDSON-HUNT, I. J., BERKES, F. Learning as you journey: Anishinaabe perception of social-ecological environments and adaptive learning. Conservation Ecology, v. 8, n. 1, 2003. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00587-080105
» https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00587-080105 -
DAWSON, N. M.; COOLSAET, B.; BHARDWAJ, A.; BOOKER, F.; BROWN, D.; LLISO B; LOOS, J.; MARTIN, A.; OLIVA, M.; PASCUAL, U.; SHERPA, P.; WORSDELL, T. Is it just conservation? A typology of Indigenous peoples’ and local communities’ roles in conserving biodiversity. One Earth, v. 7, n. 6, p. 1007-1021, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2024.05.001
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2024.05.001 -
FARISS, B.; DEMELLO, N.; POWLEN, K. A.; LATIMER, C. E.; MASUDA, Y.; KENNEDY, C. M. Catalyzing success in community-based conservation: Machine learning helps identify features of community-based conservation important to positive outcomes for people and nature. Conservation Biology, v. 37, n. 1, p 1-19, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13973
» https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13973 -
GÓMEZ-BAGGETHUN, E.; REYES-GARCÍA, V.; OLSSON, P.; MONTES, C. Traditional ecological knowledge and community resilience to environmental extremes: A case study in Doñana, SW Spain. Global Environmental Change, v. 22, n. 3, p. 640-650, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.02.005
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.02.005 -
GOODMAN, L. A. Snowball Sampling. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, p. 148-170, 1961. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177705148
» https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177705148 - HOMMA, A. K. O. A dinâmica do extrativismo vegetal na Amazônia: uma interpretação teórica. Belém: Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, 2012.
-
IBGE. Diretoria de Pesquisas, Coordenação de Agropecuária, Produção da Extração Vegetal e da Silvicultura. 2019. Produção, extrativismo vegetal e silvicultura. Rio de Janeiro, v. 34, n. 1, p. 1-8, 2019. Available: https://sidra.ibge.gov.br/Tabela/289 Accessed on: 26 June 2025.
» https://sidra.ibge.gov.br/Tabela/289 - ICMBio - Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade. Plano de Manejo do Parque Nacional dos Lençóis Maranhenses: Planejamento atualiza do e Plano de Uso Público. Brasilia: ICMBio, 2022.
- IPEA - Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada. Economias baseadas em biomas: estudo das cadeias de comercialização de produtos florestais não madeireiros na região de planejamento dos lençóis maranhenses. Rio de Janeiro: Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada, 2016.
- LÉVI-STRAUSS, C. O Pensamento Selvagem. 11ª reimpressão. São Paulo: Papirus; 2024.
-
MOURA, C. R.; CRUZ, J. R. E. M.; RIBEIRO, A. M. R. A influência da urbanização sobre o conhecimento ecológico local: uma revisão sistemática. Ethnobiology and Conservation, v. 13, n. 1, 2024. Available: https://ethnobioconservation.com/index.php/ebc/article/view/01 Accessed on: 17 jun. 2025.
» https://ethnobioconservation.com/index.php/ebc/article/view/01 - POSEY, D. A. Traditional resource rights: international instruments for protection and compensation for indigenous peoples and local communities. Switzerland: Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources, 1996.
-
ROSENFELD, T.; POKORNY, B.; MARCOVITCH, J.; POSCHEN, P. Local Development Based on Non-Timber Forest Products: Evidence from a Mapping of Initiatives in the Brazilian Amazon since Rio 1992. Sustainability, v. 16, n. 14, p. 7-20, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146005
» https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146005 -
SHACKLETON, S.; PAUMGARTEN, F.; CUNNINGHAM, A. Ecotourism and Non-Timber Forest Products: Synergies for Local Livelihoods and Conservation? Forests, v. 9, n. 9, p. 456, 2018. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9080456
» https://doi.org/10.3390/f9080456 - SHANLEY, P.; PIERCE, A. R.; LUZ, L. Revalorizando o conhecimento local e a diversidade biológica: experiências em comunidades amazônicas. CIFOR, 2011.
-
SAMPAIO, M. B.; SCHMIDT, I. B.; FIGUEIREDO, I. B. Harvesting effects and population ecology of the buriti palm (Mauritia flexuosa L.f., Arecaceae) in the Jalapão Region, Central Brazil. Economic Botany, v.62, n. 2, p.171-181, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-008-9017-8
» https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-008-9017-8 -
SAWADOGO, Y.; SABO, P.; ZON, A.; KABRÉ, B.; BELEM, M.; OUÉDRAOGO, A. Indigenous knowledge and uses of Ficus species in the Sudanian zone, Burkina Faso. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, v. 3, p. 1-22, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.30.11.1-22
» https://doi.org/10.32859/era.30.11.1-22 - SILVA, V. A.; NASCIMENTO, V. T.; SOLDATI, G.T.; MEDEIROS, M. F. T; ALBUQUERQUE U. P. Techniques for analysis of quantitative ethnobiological data: use of indices. In: ALBUQUERQUE, U. P.; CUNHA, L. V. F. C.; LUCENA R. F. P.; ALVES, R. R. N. Methods and techniques in ethnobiology and ethnoecology, New York: Springer, 2014.
-
SPASH, C.L. Foundations of Social Ecological Economics: The Fight for Revolutionary Change in Economic Thought. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.7765/9781526171498
» https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526171498 - TOLEDO, V. M.; BARRERA-BASSOLS, N. La Memoria Biocultural: La Importancia Ecológica de las Sabidurías Tradicionales. 2. ed. Barcelona: Icaria, 2015.
-
TOLEDO, V. M.; BARRERA-BASSOLS, N. Political Agroecology in Mexico: A Path toward Sustainability. Sustainability, v. 9, p. 2, p. 1-13, 2017. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020268
» https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020268 - VIEIRA, I. R.; OLIVEIRA, J. S.; SANTOS, K. P.P., VIEIRA, F. J.; BARROS R. F. M. Cosmovisión y etnoconservación en morichales (buritizales), estado de Maranhão, Brasil. Revista Espacios v. 37, n. 24, p.: 1-5, 2016.
-
YADAV, U. S.; TRIPATHI, R.; TRIPATHI, M. A. Strategies for development of handicraft sector (small industries) in India. SEDME (Small Enterprises Development, Management & Extension Journal), v. 47, n. 3, p. 175-193, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/09708464211037466
» https://doi.org/10.1177/09708464211037466 - ZAR, J. H. Biostatistical Analysis. 4th ed. Prentice Hall, 1999.
-
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Silvio Carlos Rodrigues - 0000-0002-5376-1773
