Self-regulation for learning intervention in reading comprehension: an integrative reviewAbstract
This integrative review aimed to investigate the structure of successful interventions in the development of self-regulation for learning to optimize reading comprehension of Basic Education students. The search for articles was carried out in five databases, and by the method of searching for quotes. Of the 137 items retrieved, 13 were eligible. The samples of the reported interventions were composed of students from the 3rdto 6thgrade, from American, German, and Slovenian schools. The interventions were of an instructional type, focusing on developing self-regulatory strategies to develop reading comprehension. The studies indicated that participation in the interventions increased the students' performance in this cognitive-linguistic skill. It is assumed that this review can assist psychologists and educators in preparing, applying, and monitoring the results of intervention programs to develop students' self-regulation in carrying out tasks that involve reading comprehension.
Keywords: Basic education; Motivation; Reading skills; Self-management; Strategies for learning
Resumo
O objetivo desta revisão integrativa foi investigar a estrutura de intervenções bem-sucedidas no desenvolvimento da autorregulação para aprendizagem a fim de otimizar a compreensão da leitura pelos alunos da educação básica. As buscas pelos artigos foram realizadas em cinco bases de dados, bem como através do método de busca por citações. Dos 137 artigos recuperados, 13 eram elegíveis. As amostras das intervenções reportadas eram compostas por alunos do 3º ao 6º ano de escolas estadunidenses, alemãs e eslovenas. As intervenções eram do tipo instrucional, com foco no desenvolvimento de estratégias de autorregulação para desenvolver a compreensão de leitura. Os estudos indicaram que participar das intervenções elevava o desempenho dos alunos nessa habilidade cognitivo-linguística. Presume-se que esta revisão pode auxiliar psicólogos e educadores na elaboração, aplicação e acompanhamento dos resultados de programas de intervenção para desenvolver a autorregulação dos alunos na realização de tarefas que envolvem a compreensão de leitura.
Palavras-chave: Educação básica; Motivação; Habilidades de leitura; Autogestão; Estratégias de aprendizagem
Training in language practices in Basic Education (1stand 9thgrade) aims to develop and strengthen students' proficiency in reading and reading comprehension. It is recommended that textual and visual materials are presented and worked on to stimulate the student's critical sense and autonomy regarding the use of language (Ministério da Educação, 2017). It is noteworthy that reading comprehension is highly valued as a cognitive-linguistic skill that facilitates learning and the development of critical thinking (Oliveira, Trassi, Santos, & Cunha, 2017;Tonks & Taboada, 2015).
When considering the teaching and learning process as a whole, promoting student self-regulation can help psychologists guide teachers in their pedagogical practices applied to the development of reading comprehension (Boruchovitch & Gomes, 2019;Wigfield, Gladstone, & Turci, 2016). Self-Regulation for Learning (SRL), as proposed by the Social Cognitive Theory, occurs through the interdependence of individual aspects, linked to feelings, emotions and thoughts, behavior, and the environment in which students find themselves (Zimmerman, 2015). ForZimmerman (2013,2015), the SRL is conceived in six dimensions, referring to the motive, the method, the time management, the self-declared behavior, and the physical and social environment. These dimensions are made up of constructs and skills (key-process) that can be developed in students to favor their learning, including reading comprehension.
Based on this model, the student's motivation for learning is represented by self-efficacy, the achievement goals, and intrapersonal causal attributions. Self-efficacy refers to the student's perception of his or her competence to perform a specific activity (Bandura, 2005), in the case of the present study, reading comprehension. In turn, the motivational orientation towards achieving goals varies according to the student's focus on the teaching-learning process. Thus, when performing a task, the students' objective may be to acquire knowledge (orientation towards the learning goal), evidence their good performance when obtaining high scores (performance-approach goal) or avoid being exposed by their poor performance (performance-avoidance goal) (Senko, Hulleman, & Harackiewicz, 2011;Wigfield et al., 2016). Regarding intrapersonal causal attributions, they are linked to the interpretations made by students about the possible causes that led them results of success or failure in school (Weiner, 2018).
Student self-efficacy levels for reading are linked to student autonomy and interest (Butz & Usher, 2015;Wigfield et al., 2016) and are related to reading fluency (Peura et al., 2019). Fluent reading denotes precision and speed in decoding words. Thus, when this skill is well established, it favors students' proficiency in reading comprehension (Santos & Pacheco, 2017). In this regard,Guthrie, McRae, and Klauda (2007) already indicated that developing self-efficacy and the learninggoal in students can result in gains in reading comprehension. Interventions in these constructs still promote positive effects on the development of autonomy and cooperation between students.
Thus,Guthrie et al. (2007) suggest that the way the student perceives the activities that require reading comprehension is also related to the performance goals. Guided by the performance-approach goal, the student presents the need to show exemplary achievements in reading comprehension tasks for colleagues and teachers. In turn, the student guided by the performance-avoidance goal does reading activities out of fear of not getting a good achievement (Ferraz, Cantalice, & Santos, 2019;Stutz, Schaffner, & Schiefele, 2016).
Among the skills of the six SRL dimensions that can be improved through interventions, the learning strategies, time management, organization of the physical environment, selective help-seeking, and the student's self-reflection about their performance (Boruchovitch & Gomes, 2019;Zimmerman, 2013). It is noteworthy that self-reflection involves self-evaluation, self-monitoring, and self-reactions generated by the students, based on their judgment of their performance in a given activity. These judgments can positively or negatively impact the students' actions since, based on them, their behavior can be maintained or changed (White & DiBenedetto, 2015).
Learning strategies can encourage self-regulation of this skill and help students increase their reading proficiency, which represents an alternative to improving school performance (Perry, Albeg, & Tung, 2012). The development of strategies aimed at reading can help students use them in a more conscious, autonomous, and consistent manner with what is necessary for tasks that require understanding textual material (Vieira, 2014; Wigfield et al., 2016).
Those as mentioned above theoretical and empirical meanings indicate that it is possible to develop preventive and remedial intervention programs in order to develop and strengthen the key-process of six SRL dimensions to improve the reading comprehension in Basic Education (Boruchovitch & Gomes, 2019; Perry et al., 2012; Vieira, 2014; Wigfield et al., 2016; Zimmerman, 2013). Review studies bring elements that aim to support Psychology and Education professionals in sustaining their applied practices to increase the proficiency of students in reading comprehension (Boruchovitch & Gomes, 2019; Perry et al., 2012).
The literature indicates that SRL interventions provide good results for reading comprehension development. Because of this, the present integrative review aimed to analyze the constituent aspects of interventions that developed students' self-regulation, focusing on SRL dimensions' key-process to increase the students' reading comprehension skills. This review focused on studies developed with students of school grades equivalent to the Brazilian Elementary and Middle School, considering Brazil and other countries' educational context.
Thus, in this review were analyzed the types of intervention programs reported in the studies; how self-regulation was used in interventions to optimize reading comprehension, considering the SRL dimensions' key-process; the characteristics of the samples submitted to the interventions, and the previous preparation of the professionals to apply for the intervention programs. It was also verified, in this review, which was the constructs and skills assessed in the different moments of the intervention programs (pre- and post-test and follow-up assessment), and if there was an indication of the psychometric properties of the psychological instruments/tests used in these assessments. Also, it assessed the researchers' type of data analysis procedure to assess the effectiveness of interventions.
Method
In this study, the search strategy for the articles had two stages. The first stage was carried out in databases with Brazilian and foreign journals in their indexation, whose studies have a scope compatible with the objectives of this review. In October 2019, we consulted the Education Resources Information Center, PsycINFO, theRed de Revistas Científicas de América Latina y el Caribe, España y Portugal (Network of Scientific Journals of Latin America and the Caribbean, Spain, and Portugal), the Scientific Electronic Library Online, and thePortal de Periódicos Eletrônicos de Psicologia (Portal of Electronic Journals in Psychology) databases. We used to retrieve the articles, keywords in Portuguese, "aprendizagem autorregulada " AND "intervenção " AND "compreensão de leitura " and, in English, "self-regulated learning" AND "intervention" AND "reading comprehension." We do not establish a specific period for conducting searches to retrieve the largest possible number of studies. These searches were set up to retrieve peer-reviewed scientific articles. Another criterion used in the searches was to stipulate that the keywords should appear in the title and/or in the abstract and/or in the studies' keywords.
The second stage of the search strategy included analyzing the reference list of the four articles retrieved in the first part of the research. The purpose of this type of search is to retrieve studies that fit the objectives of the review, but that did not appear in the database consultation (Littlewood & Kloukos, 2019).
The verification of the scope of the material retrieved in the two searches was done manually, from reading the title, abstract, and method of the articles. As inclusion criteria, the article should report on the application of intervention programs to develop SRL to improve the reading comprehension of students of school grades equivalent to Brazilian Elementary and Middle School and other countries’ educational context. We only selected articles that reported interventions that focused on SRL dimensions' key-process byZimmerman (2013) or that indicated the concept of self-regulation from Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2005). As an exclusion criterion, we eliminated duplicate articles and those over which access could not be obtained.
Papers that met the eligibility criteria were included in a Microsoft Excel®spreadsheet to be analyzed. We extracted from these studies information regarding authorship and year of publication, the structure of interventions (constructs and skills developed through self-regulation to improve reading comprehension), totalN sample and students per session, the number of sessions, and the length of each session. We also investigated the samples' sociodemographic characteristics, relative to the country, the school grade, and the average age of the students. We verified the constructs assessed during the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessment after the intervention ended, the psychometric properties of the instruments used in the assessment, and the data analysis procedures.
Results and Discussion
Figure 1shows the flowchart containing the application of the eligibility criteria. In the end, 13 articles reached the pre-established criteria to be analyzed in this review.
Selected Articles for Review (Flowchart based onMoher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009).
Next,Table 1, we included the data extracted from the 13 retrieved articles. The description of the results and discussion follows the order of this review's objectives, to indicate the procedures adopted in the interventions that reported SRL development to improve students' reading comprehension.
The articles inTable 1had in common the application of interventions using instructional material. This type of intervention aims to support students’ SRL to promote their adherence to strategies that facilitate reading comprehension (Boruchovitch & Gomes, 2019;Schunk & Rice, 1987;Voellinger & Spörer, 2014).
Except for the study byRegent (2010), which aimed to compare a single experimental group with a control group, the other studies compared the effectiveness of two to four groups with different types of interventions to develop their SRL, aiming at reading comprehension. Interventions that encompassed a more significant number of SRL key-process, such as motivation and self-evaluation, resulted in greater reading comprehension than those that involved fewer (Souvignier & Mokhlesgerami, 2006;Spörer & Schünemann, 2014;Stoeger, Sontag, & Ziegler, 2014;Voellinger & Spörer, 2014). The gains were also more significant to those whose interventions were based on traditional teaching practices (Spörer, Brunstein, & Kieschke, 2009;Wigfield et al., 2008).
As for the most used constructs in the intervention programs, motivation is highlighted, represented by the achievement goals. In the study bySchunk and Rice (1989), they inserted these goals into two types of intervention - one to guide the student while applying the strategies and the other to lead the strategy to the desired final result: improving reading comprehension. The consideration of the specifics of achieving goals in students' motivational quality to develop their SRL skills tends to have a positive impact on engagement and persistence (Stutz et al., 2016;Wigfield et al., 2016).
Still, about the motivation constructs, the intrapersonal causal attributions were also used during the interventions reported in the studies. The attributional training carried out byCarr and Borkwoski (1989) stands out through the exhibition of drawings that enabled the dialogue between researchers and students on how they misconstrued their gains and their difficulties using the strategies of reading during the intervention sessions. These researchers presented the students with the differences between the internal causal attributions that were more easily controlled by the student, the case of effort, and the external and uncontrollable causal attributions, such as luck and task difficulty. Incorporating the components of causality attributions into interventions has shown positive results regarding the appropriate use of recall strategies for reading, performance in reading comprehension, and more functional attributional beliefs for this cognitive-linguistic skill.
Another motivational construct worked on in the interventions was self-efficacy. Anticipating that this construct interferes with the student's motivation,Schunk and Rice (1987) feedback interviews throughout the activities so that, within the reality of each one, the students perceived themselves capable of learning and applying the reading strategies. In turn, in the intervention program conducted bySchünemann, Spörer, and Brunstein (2013), the encouragement of self-regulation of strategies for carrying out reading activities increased students' self-efficacy for reading. Given these intervention programs' results, higher levels of self-efficacy in carrying out activities that involve reading comprehension tend to optimize students' performance in this skill and vice versa (Wigfield et al., 2016).
Based on the above, the focus on motivation for SRL in interventions helps guide the professional who conducts the intervention to develop reading strategies in students. Motivation is continuously indicated by Psychology and Education professionals as one of the SRL components linked to student adherence in activities that require reading comprehension (Boruchovith & Gomes, 2019;Bzuneck & Boruchovitch, 2016;Souvignier & Mokhlesgerami, 2006).
The studies inTable 1also indicate that the stimulus to SRL through self-reflection, represented by self-evaluation and self-monitoring, was applied to make the student think about the effectiveness of the reading strategies learned during the intervention. These skills help students adjust their learning strategies if they identified that something should be improved (Mason, 2004;Regent, 2010;Schünemann et al., 2013;Souvignier & Mokhlesgerami, 2006;Spörer & Schünemann, 2014). In the intervention sessions developed bySpörer and Schünemann (2014), students were encouraged to record their self-evaluation and self-monitoring progress in logbooks, spreadsheets, and performance diagrams. As they learned to self-regulate these skills, the researchers gradually withdrew these supplementary resources.
Stimulating self-reflection is an alternative to improve reading comprehension skills and maintain motivation (Zimmerman, 2013). Through self-evaluation and self-monitoring, students gradually develop their notion of which strategies are more or less effective in understanding different texts. As they experience good results, from self-reflection on the effectiveness of the strategies adopted, their sense of self-efficacy tends to increase and, with this, they feel more motivated to perform similar activities (Boruchovith & Gomes, 2019;Butz & Usher, 2015;White & DiBenedetto, 2015).
When focusing on the interventions' target audience,Table 1indicates that the study samples consisted of students from the 3rdto the 6thgrades of American and German schools and one Slovenian educational institution. It is noteworthy that we did not identify studies with Brazilian students' samples that fit this review's scope. The verification of this gap, plus the results of the studies that made up this research, point to possible gains with the insertion of intervention programs to develop self-regulation for reading comprehension in the Brazilian educational context. This type of intervention can broaden the understanding of how self-regulation works in this cognitive-linguistic skill and, from this knowledge, be included in preventive and remedial pedagogical practices (Boruchovitch & Gomes, 2019;Bzuneck & Boruchovitch, 2016;Vieira, 2014).
These were held at school about the intervention sessions, in spaces reserved to accommodate small groups of students or classrooms for larger groups of students. In addition to the work developed at school, the intervention program byStoeger et al. (2014) demanded that students perform homework tasks. Most interventions included groups of four to six students. The number of sessions varied according to each intervention's purposes, which ranged from six to 15. The vast majority of sessions did not exceed one hour in duration.
These interventions suggest that the formation of smaller groups of students presents more useful results to develop their SRL for reading comprehension (Perry et al., 2012;Spörer et al., 2009). Concerning the reality of Brazilian schools, one can ponder the possible difficulty of working in small groups, considering that the Brazilian educational system is foreseen an average number of 30 to 35 students per classroom for primary education (Câmara dos Deputados, 2007). In this sense, investments in research are necessary, whose objective is to investigate the possibilities of carrying out interventions focused on developing the SRL linked to reading comprehension, which is adequate to Brazilian schools' configuration, especially those of the public education system.
The intervention sessions were both conducted by external staff, related to the research center where the studies were developed, called external instructors, and teachers trained for this purpose. The researchers responsible for the study trained the external instructors and teachers to carry out the different types of intervention in the students and to apply the instruments at each moment of the interventions (Schünemann et al., 2013;Schunk & Rice, 1987;Spörer et al., 2009;Spörer & Schünemann, 2014).
External assessors verified the proficiency of the instructors in the application of the interventions and the handling of instruments (Schünemann et al., 2013;Spörer et al., 2009;Spörer & Schünemann, 2014). AtMason (2004) andVoellinger and Spörer (2014), the interventions' accuracy was checked by monitoring the work developed by the instructors.
All articles inTable 1reported using psychometric instruments to assess the students' initial performance in reading comprehension in the pre-test and, subsequently, the gains in this linguistic ability in the experimental and control groups in the post-test (Regent, 2010;Schünemann et al., 2013;Schunk & Rice, 1987,1989;Souvignier & Mokhlesgerami, 2006;Spörer et al., 2009). These instruments were also intended to make a comparison between experimental groups, which intervention programs were most effective in developing SRL and reading comprehension skills (Carr & Borkowski, 1989;Mason, 2004;Schunk & Rice, 1991;Spörer & Schünemann, 2014;Stoeger et al., 2014;Voellinger & Spörer, 2014;Wigfield et al., 2008). Most of the studies used the instruments in the follow-up assessment of students after a few weeks after the completion of the intervention (Carr & Borkowski, 1989;Mason, 2004;Schünemann et al., 2013;Souvignier & Mokhlesgerami, 2006;Spörer et al., 2009;Spörer & Schünemann, 2014;Stoeger et al., 2014;Voellinger & Spörer, 2014).
The process of assessing the intervention's effectiveness allows the inclusion of standardized instruments or the construction of measures based on the intervention proposal (Stoeger et al., 2014;White & DiBenedetto, 2015). However, the second option requires the researcher's care with the instrument's psychometric properties to be built (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education,2014), as was done in the studies byCarr and Borkowski (1989) andSchunk and Rice (1987), in which reliability estimates were verified, using pilot samples.
Except for the intervention conducted byCarr and Borkowski (1989), which used an instrument to assess reading comprehension strategies, the other studies used instruments to assess reading comprehension skills. In the interventions carried out bySchünemann et al. (2013),Spörer and Schünemann (2014),Voellinger and Spörer (2014), other language skills related to reading comprehension were also assessed, such as fluency in reading. Seven studies used instruments to assess the use of reading strategies, which is consistent with the focus of the interventions since their objectives were centered on training students to use this resource to improve their reading comprehension abilities. The self-efficacy assessment for reading was prevalent among the motivational constructs (Mason, 2004; Schünemann et al., 2013;Schunk & Rice, 1987,1989;Souvignier & Mokhlesgerami, 2006).
The studies inTable 1indicate that the measures used in the interventions had reliability estimates about the psychometric quality of the instruments. In this sense, the interventions conducted byCarr and Borkowski (1989) andSchunk and Rice (1987) reported the use of the test and retest, carried out with samples of pilot studies of the interventions. In the study byMason (2004), there was an investigation of the assessors' agreement. The reliability estimates of the instruments used in the interventions were also obtained by the internal consistency indices (alpha coefficients,Spörer & Schünemann, 2014; Schünemann et al., 2013), and by the correlations between the parallel forms of tests applied in the pre- and post-test (Schunk & Rice, 1989).
Regarding the treatment of the data obtained with the interventions, the studies presented several analyzes to compare the performance of the experimental and control groups and between the experimental groups themselves. In the studies byCarr and Borkowski (1989) andSchunk and Rice (1987), they used the statistical resources of the Classical Test Theory to compare groups through parametric analyzes of variance and covariance. These analyzes were applied to ascertain the absence of performance differences in the instruments answered by students in the experimental and control groups in the pre-test stage and investigate the statistical significance of these differences between pre- and post-test stages. However, in both stages (pre- and post-test), the studies did not indicate the requirements for using parametric analyzes in the data analysis.
In the studies by Schünemann et al. (2014) andStoeger et al. (2014), there was an indication of more specific criteria for using statistical resources. In Stoeger et al. (2014), for example, the choice for hierarchical regression models was made based on selecting students who participated in the interventions. The samples came from the same classroom, so the researchers raised the hypothesis that there would be a tendency for students to be more similar to each other than if they were from different classes (Stoeger et al., 2014). In turn, in the study bySchünemann et al. (2013), the authors opted for a data treatment that was adequate for a small sample size to compare the differences between the experimental and control groups and the size of the statistical effect generated by the interventions.
Based on the aspects above, it is necessary to consider the psychometric quality and the compatibility of the intervention proposal with the assessment tests. Since intervention programs are characterized as longitudinal studies, it is worth considering the use of instruments and data processing capable of capturing the student's changes throughout the intervention sessions, not being restricted to the verification of possible improvements through comparing pre- and post-tests. The assessment of reading comprehension must, for example, consider both the performance in this skill and the processes that are mobilized in the student to understand the text (Boruchovitch & Gomes, 2019). In turn, the statistical treatment of the data must demonstrate the specificities of the changes in student performance throughout the interventions, indicating in which aspects the intervention program was more or less successful (Schünemann et al., 2013;Spörer & Schünemann, 2014). In this topic, it is essential to emphasize the researchers' responsibility to describe in detail all the procedures adopted in the intervention to guarantee its replicability and the review of aspects to be improved.
Still, it is also valid to understand the students' opinions to measure the gains obtained with the intervention sessions regarding the data assessment and treatment process. However, it is necessary to consider the congruence of the students' self-perception about what was achieved by them in the intervention, comparing their responses using psychometric tests and observations. Students' self-perception can suffer the interference of social desirability, leading them to issue positive assessments by inferring that this will be somehow valued by the people involved, and not necessarily by perceiving his gains as a result of the intervention (Boruchovitch & Gomes, 2019;Stoeger et al., 2014).
Final Considerations
The results of this review indicate that interventions to develop the SRL dimensions' key-process lead to improvements in the performance of students in reading comprehension. This perspective highlights the contribution of interventions that incorporate the motivation to promote SRL, since this construct helps develop learning strategies and skills linked to self-declared behavior (self-reflection), such as self-evaluation and self-monitoring.
It suggested that future studies to review self-regulation intervention programs for reading comprehension include dissertations and theses. We conjecture these studies may not have been published in article format. In this sense, interventions made with Brazilian students on this theme may be retrieved considering the material produced in graduate programs, emphasizing Psychology and Education, and the dialogue between the two fields of knowledge.
Finally, it emphasized that the inclusion of self-regulation in pedagogical practices requires that school psychologists, pedagogical coordinators, and teachers be prepared to elaborate, conduct, and assess the intervention's effects. It should be noted that one way of applying what is being investigated in research centers regarding schools that allow researchers to perform their intervention work is to provide guidance and training directed to the school staff, especially for teachers. Another possibility is the provision of training for teachers to become instructors, responsible for conducting interventions. In this case, it is necessary to monitor their performance periodically. Nevertheless, both suggestions' viability depends on financial and institutional investors to establish partnerships between schools and graduate programs, where most of these studies are currently being developed in Brazil.
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Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
12 Apr 2021 -
Date of issue
2021
History
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Received
14 Jan 2020 -
Reviewed
08 July 2020 -
Accepted
08 Sept 2020
Note: ERIC: Education Resources Information Center; PePSIC = Periódicos Eletrônicos de Psicologia.Redalyc:Red de Revistas Científicas de América Latina y el Caribe, España y Portugal ; SciELO: Scientific Electronic Library Online.