Abstract:
The objective of this work was to evaluate soil water dynamics in areas cultivated with forage cactus clones and to determine how environmental conditions and crop growth affect evapotranspiration. The study was conducted in the municipality of Serra Talhada, in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. Crop growth was monitored through changes in the cladode area index (CAI) and through the soil cover fraction, calculated at the end of the cycle. Real evapotranspiration (ET) of the three evaluated clones was obtained as the residual term in the soil water balance method. No difference was observed between soil water balance components, even though the evaluated clones were of different genus and had different CAI increments. Accumulated ET was of 1,173 mm during the 499 days of the experiment, resulting in daily average of 2.35 mm. The CAI increases the water consumption of the Orelha de Elefante Mexicana clone. In dry conditions, the water consumption of the Miúda clone responds more slowly to variation in soil water availability. The lower evolution of the CAI of the IPA Sertânia clone, during the rainy season, leads to a higher contribution of the evaporation component in ET. The atmospheric demand controls the ET of clones only when there is higher soil water availability; in this condition, the water consumption of the Miúda clone decreases more rapidly with the increase of atmospheric demand.
Index terms:
Nopalea, Opuntia; CAM photosynthetic pathway; evapotranspiration
Resumo:
O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a dinâmica de água no solo em áreas cultivadas com clones de palma forrageira, e determinar como as condições ambientais e o crescimento da cultura afetam a evapotranspiração. O estudo foi conduzido no Município de Serra Talhada, no Estado de Pernambuco. O crescimento da cultura foi monitorado por meio da evolução do índice de área do cladódio (IAC) e da fração de cobertura do solo calculada ao final do ciclo. A evapotranspiração real (ET) dos três clones avaliados foi obtida como resíduo do método do balanço hídrico do solo. Não foi observada diferença entre os componentes do balanço hídrico do solo, embora os clones pertencessem a gêneros diferentes e apresentassem diferentes incrementos do IAC. A ET acumulada foi de 1.173 mm durante os 499 dias experimentais, com média diária de 2,35 mm. O IAC aumenta o consumo de água do clone Orelha de Elefante Mexicana. Em condições de seca, o consumo de água do clone Miúda responde mais lentamente à variação no armazenamento de água no solo. A menor evolução do IAC do clone IPA Sertânia, durante o período chuvoso, induz à maior contribuição do componente de evaporação na ET. A demanda atmosférica controla a ET dos clones apenas quando há maior disponibilidade de água no solo; nesta condição, o consumo de água do clone Miúda diminui mais rapidamente com o aumento da demanda atmosférica.
Termos para indexação:
Nopalea; Opuntia; via fotossintética MAC; evapotranspiração
Introduction
The Brazilian semiarid region is characterized by high temporal and spatial rainfall variability and high atmospheric evaporation, which, combined, result in a severe soil water deficit over several periods of the year (>1,000 mm per year) (Moura et al., 2007MOURA, M.S.B. de; GALVINCIO, J.D.; BRITO, L.T. de L.; SOUZA, L.S.B. de; SÁ, I.I.S.; SILVA, T.G.F. da. Clima e água de chuva no semi-árido. In: BRITO, L.T.L.; MOURA, M.S.B. de; GAMA, G.F.B. (Ed.). Potencialidades da água de chuva no Semiárido brasileiro. Petrolina: Embrapa Semiárido, 2007. p.37-59.). In order to meet the fodder demand of animals, especially during droughts, the use of plant species that are more adapted to local conditions is common among producers. Forage cactus is a native species of Mexico, with the Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) photosynthetic pathway and great potential for use in semiarid regions of Northeast Brazil, besides being one of the most important cacti worldwide (Oliveira et al., 2010OLIVEIRA, F.T. de; SOUTO, J.S.; SILVA, R.P. da; ANDRADE FILHO, F.C. de; PEREIRA JÚNIOR, E.B. Palma forrageira: adaptação e importância para os ecossistemas áridos e semiáridos. Revista Verde de Agroecologia e Desenvolvimento Sustentável, v.5, p.27-37, 2010.).
Despite the importance of forage cactus, there is little information
about this crop's interaction with the environment, in
particular with regard to soil water dynamics and
evapotranspiration (ET). Soil water dynamics provides essential
knowledge for agricultural management practices during different
phenological stages for crop yield improvement (Zougmoré et al., 2004ZOUGMORÉ, R.; MANDO, A.; STROOSNIJDER, L. Effect
of soil and water conservation and nutrient management
on the soil-plant water balance in semi-arid Burkina
Faso. Agricultural Water Management, v.65, p.103-120,
2004. DOI:
10.1016/j.agwat.2003.07.001.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2003.07....
;
Ghiberto et al.,
2011GHIBERTO, P.J.; LIBARDI, P.L.; BRITO, A.S.;
TRIVELIN, P.C.O. Components of the water balance in
soil with sugarcane crops. Agricultural Water
Management, v.102, p.1-7, 2011. DOI:
10.1016/j.agwat.2011.09.010.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2011.09....
), whereas ET provides important information
for water management both in irrigated and dry soil conditions.
However, records on ET data for forage cactus are few around the
world and practically non-existent in the Brazilian semiarid
region, where this crop is of great economic importance (Oliveira et al.,
2010OLIVEIRA, F.T. de; SOUTO, J.S.; SILVA, R.P. da;
ANDRADE FILHO, F.C. de; PEREIRA JÚNIOR, E.B. Palma
forrageira: adaptação e importância para os
ecossistemas áridos e semiáridos. Revista Verde de
Agroecologia e Desenvolvimento Sustentável, v.5,
p.27-37, 2010.).
Previous studies have used the soil water balance method to quantify
the evapotranspiration of the Opuntia ellisiana
Griffiths cactus in the semiarid region of Kingsville, Texas,
USA (Han & Felker,
1997HAN, H.; FELKER, P. Field validation of
water-use efficiency of the CAM plant Opuntia
ellisiana in south Texas. Journal of Arid
Environments, v.36, p.133-148, 1997. DOI:
10.1006/jare.1996.0202.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1996.0202...
). The micrometeorological method of
turbulent vortices has also been adopted to determine energy
fluxes, ET, and crop coefficient for cactus pear
[Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.]
cultivated for fruit production in Sicily, Italy (Consoli et al.,
2013CONSOLI, S.; INGLESE, G.; INGLESE, P.
Determination of evapotranspiration and annual biomass
productivity of a cactus pear [Opuntia
ficus-indica L.(Mill.)]
orchard in a semiarid environment. Journal of
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, v.139, p.680-690,
2013. DOI:
10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000589.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-47...
).
Soil water availability is one of the main factors affecting plant
growth. Consequently, plant cover influences soil water moisture
and the evapotranspiration process. Studies carried out on CAM
photosynthetic pathway in others regions of the world have shown
that atmospheric demand governs cactus aerodynamic conductance
and that crop growth affects energy partition, influencing crop
evapotranspiration (San José et
al.2007aSAN JOSÉ, J.; MONTES, R.; NIKONOVA, N. Diurnal
patterns of carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy
fluxes in pineapple [Ananas comosus
(L.) Merr. cv. Red Spanish] field using eddy
covariance. Photosynthetica, v.45, p.370-384, 2007a.
DOI: 10.1007/s11099-007-0064-7.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11099-007-0064-...
, 2007bSAN JOSÉ, J.; MONTES, R.; NIKONOVA, N. Seasonal
patterns of carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy
fluxes in pineapple. Agricultural and Forest
Meteorology, v.147, p.16-34, 2007b. DOI:
10.1016/j.agrformet.2007.06.003.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2007...
; Consoli
et al., 2013CONSOLI, S.; INGLESE, G.; INGLESE, P.
Determination of evapotranspiration and annual biomass
productivity of a cactus pear [Opuntia
ficus-indica L.(Mill.)]
orchard in a semiarid environment. Journal of
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, v.139, p.680-690,
2013. DOI:
10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000589.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-47...
). However, this type of study has
not been developed for cactus species in the semiarid region of
Brazil.
The objective of this work was to evaluate soil water dynamics in areas cultivated with forage cactus clones and to determine how environmental conditions and crop growth affect evapotranspiration.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted in the municipality of Serra Talhada, in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil (7°58'S, 42°50'W, at 461 m above sea level). Rainfall in the region is around 642.1 mm per year, occurring mainly between January and April. Annual mean temperature is about 24.8°C, and relative humidity is approximately 62.5%, resulting in an atmospheric evaporative demand of around 1,800 mm per year and in a deficit of 1,143 mm per year, according to the climatological water balance proposed by Thornthwaite & Matter (1955)THORNTHWAITE, C.W.; MATHER, J.R. The water balance. Centerton: Drexel Institute of Technology, 1955. 104p. (Publications in climatology, v.8, n.1)., assuming 100-mm available water capacity. The soil of the experimental area is a Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo eutrófico franco arenoso (Santos et al., 2006SANTOS, H.G. dos; JACOMINE, P.K.T.; ANJOS, L.H.C. dos; OLIVEIRA, V.A. de; OLIVEIRA, J.B. de; COELHO, M.R.; LUMBRERAS, J.F.; CUNHA, T.J.F. (Ed.). Sistema brasileiro de classificação de solos. 2.ed. Rio de janeiro: Embrapa Solos, 2006. 306p.) (sandy loam Yellow-Red Eutrophic Acrisol); soil physical characteristics are shown in Table 1.
Physical characteristics of the soil cultivated with the evaluated forage cactus clones under rainfed conditions in the Brazilian semiarid region.
The experimental area was established in February 2010 and was planted with three forage cactus clones: IPA-200205-IPA-Sertânia [Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck], IPA-100004-Miúda [Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck], and IPA-200016-Orelha de Elefante Mexicana [Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw.], at 1.6x0.2-m spacing in contour lines, with plant density of 31,250 plants per hectare. The area was subdivided into nine experimental plots, containing four rows, each with 20 plants, occupying 25.6 m2. The floor area was 10.24 m2, with 32 useful plants distributed in a randomized complete block design with three replicates. Treatments consisted of the three evaluated clones. During the experimental period, 130 kg ha-1 N fertilizer were applied at three dates. Chemicals, such as herbicides and insecticides, were used when necessary. The productive cycle occurred between February 2010 and March 2012 under nonirrigated conditions.
The weather conditions during the experiment were monitored by an
automatic weather station located approximately 700 m from the
study area, belonging to the Brazilian National Institute of
Meteorology (Instituto Nacional
de Meteorologia, 2015INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE METEOROLOGIA (Brasil).
INMET - Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia. Disponível
em: <Disponível em:
http://www.inmet.gov.br/portal/
>. Acesso em: 15 jan.
2015.
http://www.inmet.gov.br/portal/...
). Reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) was estimated using the data
obtained by the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method (Allen et al.,
1998ALLEN, R.G.; PEREIRA, L.S.; RAES, D.; SMITH, M.
Crop evapotranspiration: guidelines for computing crop
water requirements. Rome: FAO, 1998. 300p. (FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 56).).
Soil water content was monitored using a portable capacitance probe Diviner 2000 model (Sentek Technologies, Stepney, Adelaide, Australia) and nine fixed access tubes installed more than 0.90 m deep in the soil; one in each experimental plot. The readings were taken up to 0.70 m-depth, after the crop root system has not exceeded the depth of 0.60 m, and observations were made on 1-m deep trenches. The probe was initially calibrated after the installation of the tubes in the experimental plots, as recommended by the manufacturer. Soil water content was measured every 0.10 m at 3-day intervals. Moisture monitoring started on October 20th, 2010, and ended on March 2nd, 2012.
Soil water balance components were quantified for a 0.60-m depth layer, using the following expression (Libardi, 2005LIBARDI, P.L. Dinâmica da água no solo. São Paulo: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 2005. 335p.): P - ET ± Q - R = ΔA, in which: P is the rainfall in millimeters; ET is the evapotranspiration in millimeters; Q is the soil water flow; the negative and positive signs represent deep drainage or capillary rise, respectively, both in millimeters; R is the runoff in millimeters; and ΔA is the soil water storage variation, also in millimeters.
Rainfall was monitored using the rain gauge from the automatic weather station of the Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology. Based on data from the layers below (0.50 m) and above (0.70 m), deep drainage and capillary rise were determined using the Buckingham-Darcy equation (Libardi, 2005LIBARDI, P.L. Dinâmica da água no solo. São Paulo: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 2005. 335p.), according to the lower limit of the soil profile (0.60-m depth), by: in which: Q is the soil water flow by deep drainage (negative sign) or by capillary rise (positive sign) in millimeters per day; K(θ) is the unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity in millimeters per day, obtained by the K(θ)=Ko.exp[γ(θ-θo)] ratio, in which Ko is the saturated soil hydraulic conductivity (mm per day), γ is the parameter adjusted from the equation, and θ - θo is the difference between actual soil moisture and saturated soil moisture; and ΔΨt/Δzis the soil total water potential gradient between the 0.50 and 0.70-m layers.
The Ψt parameter was estimated for both depths by the equation below: Ψt = αe-βθ, in which α and β are dimensionless parameters.
The K(θ) and Ψt equation parameters were adjusted through tensiometers and soil moisture measurements at eight depths, which were obtained over time for soil water redistribution, through an instantaneous profile method.
Runoff (R) was estimated by the curve number method proposed by Mockus (1972)MOCKUS, V. Design hydrographs. In: UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Natural Resources Conservation Service. National engineering handbook: part 630 hydrology. Washington: USDA, 1972. 115p., which was developed for large volumes of rain - considering soil-vegetation complex, soil type, soil use, initial soil moisture, and hydrological properties of the site - and is represented by the following expression:
in which: P is the rainfall in millimeters for the analyzed period; and CN is the curve number, adopted for the study, equal to 75, which represents moderate infiltration rate, when the soil is completely wet.
Soil water storage was determined by the integration of the water depth values for each 0.10 m, which were obtained by the Diviner 2000 capacitance probe (Sentek Technologies, Stepney, Adelaide, Australia). Water storage variation (ΔA) in the soil profile at 0.60-m depth was determined by the difference between each initial and final value of the evaluated period.
Accumulated actual evapotranspiration (ETac) during the studied period and daily mean evapotranspiration (ETd) of the different clones evaluated were obtained as the residual term in the soil water balance equation. The ratio between the actual and reference evapotranspiration (ET/ETo) was also obtained. Throughout the conversion, the negative values of ET, runoff, and deep drainage represent soil water output; the positive signals of capillary rise indicate soil water input; and the positive or negative signals represent ΔA.
Water balance components in the soil and the ET/ETo ratio were determined for 37 periods, with mean intervals of 14 days. However, to simplify the data amount, these periods were combined into nine, lasting between 49 and 68 days each: period 1, from October 20th, 2010, to December 15th, 2010; period 2, from December 16th, 2010, to February 9th, 2011; period 3, from February 10th, 2011, to April 18th, 2011; period 4, from April 19th, 2011, to June 17th, 2011; period 5, from June 18th, 2011, to August 8th, 2011; period 6, from August 9th, 2011, to September 26th, 2011; period 7, from September 27th, 2011, to November 14th, 2011; period 8, from November 15th, 2011, to January 4th, 2012; and period 9, from January 5th, 2012, to March 2nd, 2012. These periods were divided according to crop-growth monitoring periods.
To obtain the increment of the CAI, the cladode number per plant (CNP)
was determined, and cladode length and width were measured
throughout the experimental period for three plants per
replicate. Mathematical equations for each forage cactus clone
were used for cladode area estimation (Silva et al., 2014SILVA, T.G.F. da; MIRANDA, K.R. de; SANTOS, D.C.
dos; QUEIROZ, M.G. de; SILVA, M. da C.; CRUZ NETO, J.F.
da; ARAÚJO, J.E.M. Área do cladódio de clones de palma
forrageira: modelagem, análise e aplicabilidade.
Agrária, v.9, p.633-641, 2014. DOI:
10.5039/agraria.v9i4a4344.
https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v9i4a434...
), and the CAI was
calculated according to Pinheiro
et al. (2014)PINHEIRO, K.M.; SILVA, T.G.F. da; CARVALHO, H.F.
de S.; SANTOS, J.E.O.; MORAIS, J.E.F. de; ZOLNIER, S.;
SANTOS, D.C. dos. Correlações do índice de área do
cladódio com características morfogênicas e produtivas
da palma forrageira. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira,
v.49, p.939-947, 2014. DOI:
10.1590/S0100-204X2014001200004.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X201400...
. Mathematic models were adjusted
to the CAI values depending on the days after cutting. Models
were developed in order to obtain the daily and monthly CAI
increments for the three evaluated clones.
At the end of the cycle, soil cover index (%) for each clone was calculated through the following equation:
in which: L is the plant canopy mean in meters; and E is the spacing between crop rows (1.6 m).
In the statistical analysis, soil water balance component means, standard deviations, and coefficients of variation were obtained for the nine periods evaluated for each of the three clones. Assuming the adopted design, the comparison of data from Q, ΔA, accumulated ET, and daily ET was made by analysis of variance and, when significant, Tukey's test, at 5% probability, was applied. The linear relationship between actual evapotranspiration, reference evapotranspiration, increment of the CAI, and soil water storage variation was used to analyze how environmental conditions and crop growth affects evapotranspiration. The significance of the equations and their parameters was evaluated at 1, 5, and 10% probability.
Results and Discussion
The meteorological variables obtained for 2010-2012 were atypical. The local long-term mean annual rainfall is 642 mm. In 2010 and 2011, the values were of 730 and 960 mm, respectively. Furthermore, an evidently prolonged drought in 2012 was observed, resulting in an annual rainfall of 238 mm, representing only 37% of the local long-term mean.
As a result, the curve number method revealed low runoff values for
all analyzed periods, representing less than 1%, i.e. 9.3 mm, of
total rainfall. Many studies on soil water dynamics consider
this component as insignificant (Castellanos et al., 2013CASTELLANOS, M.T.; CARTAGENA, M.C.; RIBAS, F.;
CABELLO, M.J.; ARCE, A.; TARQUIS, A.M. Impact of
nitrogen uptake on field water balance in fertirrigated
melon. Agricultural Water Management, v.120, p.56-63,
2013. DOI:
10.1016/j.agwat.2012.10.020.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2012.10....
). However, it depends
on soil type, soil texture, planting system, soil cover extent,
land slope, soil water infiltration, and rain intensity (Zougmoré et al., 2004ZOUGMORÉ, R.; MANDO, A.; STROOSNIJDER, L. Effect
of soil and water conservation and nutrient management
on the soil-plant water balance in semi-arid Burkina
Faso. Agricultural Water Management, v.65, p.103-120,
2004. DOI:
10.1016/j.agwat.2003.07.001.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2003.07....
;
Schwartz et al.,
2010SCHWARTZ, R.C.; BAUMHARDT, R.L.; EVETT, S.R.
Tillage effects on soil water redistribution and bare
soil evaporation throughout a season. Soil and Tillage
Research, v.110, p.221-229, 2010. DOI:
10.1016/j.still.2010.07.015.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2010.07....
; Yadav et
al., 2011YADAV, S.; HUMPHREYS, E.; KUKAL, S.S.; GILL, G.;
RANGARAJAN, R. Effect of water management on dry seeded
and puddled transplanted rice: Part 2: Water balance
and water productivity. Field Crops Research, v.120,
p.123-132, 2011. DOI:
10.1016/j.fcr.2010.09.003.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2010.09.00...
).
Although the evaluated clones are of different genera (Nopalea ssp. and Opuntia ssp.) and have distinct growth habits, the cumulative values of the water balance components (DD/CR, ΔA, and ETac) were similar per cycle (Table 2). However, differences between DD/CR, ΔA, and ETac were verified for some periods over time, depending on rainfall regime (Table 3). In the experimental periods 1 to 3, from October 20th, 2010, to April 18th, 2011, increased rainfall was recorded, with subsequent reduction until period 8, from November 15th, 2011, to January 4th, 2012, when there was an increase until the end of the crop cycle. Throughout the analysis period, the accumulated rainfall was 1,269.1 mm.
Comparison of the cumulative values of deep drainage (DD), capillary rise (CR), soil water storage variation (ΔA), actual evapotranspiration (ETac), and daily actual evapotrasnpiration (ETd) of the IPA Sertânia, Miúda, and Orelha de Elefante Mexicana (OEM) clones during the experimental period of 499 days(1).
Rainfall (P), number of days per period (DNP), reference evapotranspiration (ETo), runoff (R), deep drainage (DD), capillary rise (CR), soil water storage variation (ΔA), and accumulated actual evapotranspiration (ETac) of the IPA Sertânia (IPA), Miúda (MIU), and Orelha de Elefante Mexicana (OEM) clones.
Deep drainage occurred especially in periods 3 and 4, from February
10th, 2011, to April 18th, 2011,
and from April 19th, 2011, to June 17th,
2011, respectively. This stream type is more frequent in intense
rainfall events, when the soil has a sandy texture, as reported
by Gaiser et al. (2004)GAISER, T.; BARROS, I. de; LANGE, F.-M.;
WILLIAMS, J.R. Water use efficiency of a maize/cowpea
intercrop on a highly acidic tropical soil as affected
by liming and fertilizer application. Plant and Soil,
v.263, p.165-171, 2004. DOI:
10.1023/B:PLSO.0000047733.98854.9f.
https://doi.org/10.1023/B:PLSO.000004773...
.
However, deep drainage can also be enhanced under prolonged
drought conditions in areas cultivated with some
Opuntia spp., as the root system can
reach greater depths, forming channels in the soil that promote
water movement, as found by Snyman (2006a)SNYMAN, H.A. Root distribution with changes in
distance and depth of two-year-old cactus pears
Opuntia ficus-indica and
O. robusta plants. South African
Journal of Botany, v.72, p.434-441, 2006a. DOI:
10.1016/j.sajb.2005.12.008.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2005.12.0...
.
Despite the high cumulative values of rainfall during some periods (1,
2, and 9), drainage was low, because, after dry periods, most of
the water is used in soil replenishment or is extracted by the
plant root system, as described by Primo et al. (2015)PRIMO, J.T. de A.; SILVA, T.G.F. da; SILVA,
S.M.S. e; MOURA, M.S.B. de; SOUZA, L.S.B. de.
Calibração de sondas capacitivas, funções
físico-hídricas e variação do armazenamento de água em
um argissolo cultivado com palma forrageira. Revista
Ceres, v.62, p.20-29, 2015. DOI:
10.1590/0034-737X201562010003.
https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-737X2015620...
. This can be
explained by the high capacity of cacti to store water in
cladodes and by the elongation of the root system, which
increases rapidly after being subjected to long periods of
drought (Snyman, 2006aSNYMAN, H.A. Root distribution with changes in
distance and depth of two-year-old cactus pears
Opuntia ficus-indica and
O. robusta plants. South African
Journal of Botany, v.72, p.434-441, 2006a. DOI:
10.1016/j.sajb.2005.12.008.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2005.12.0...
,
2006bSNYMAN, H.A. A greenhouse study on root dynamics
of cactus pears, Opuntia ficus-indica
and O.
robusta. Journal of Arid
Environments, v.65, p.529-542, 2006b. DOI:
10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.10.004.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005....
). These
roots, called "rain roots", are extensive, dense, and close to
the soil surface. They appear shortly after the soil is
moistened, quickly absorbing water, and disappear soon after
when the soil dries up (Snyman,
2006bSNYMAN, H.A. A greenhouse study on root dynamics
of cactus pears, Opuntia ficus-indica
and O.
robusta. Journal of Arid
Environments, v.65, p.529-542, 2006b. DOI:
10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.10.004.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005....
).
ΔA showed positive values especially in periods that followed
major droughts, such as period 1, from October 20th,
2010, to December 15th, 2010. In periods 2 and 3,
from December 16th, 2010, to February 9th,
2011, and from February 10th, 2011, to April
18th, 2011, respectively, the ΔA values
were also positive, although with smaller magnitudes than in
period 1 and with increasing water extraction by plants. In
period 9, from January 5th, 2012, to March
2nd, 2012, which also occurred after a long
period with low rainfall, the variation was also positive.
However, changes in stored water were lower than those found
during period 1, since rainfall was higher at the end of 2011
than at the end of 2010. Some ΔA positive values were still
observed in periods 5 and 7, from June 18th, 2011, to
August 8th, 2011, and from September 27th,
2011, to November 14th, 2011, respectively, even with
lower rainfall levels, which may be related to the reduction of
plant water consumption and the occurrence of rainfall events at
the end of the period. ΔA negative values are probably a
result of increased root activity after periods with higher
rainfall, such as: period 4, from April 19th, 2011,
to June 17th, 2011; period 6, from August
9th, 2011, to September 26th,
2011; and period 8, from November 15th, 2011, to
January 4th, 2012. Subsequently, water extraction by
roots was recorded, increasing cladode mass (Snyman, 2006aSNYMAN, H.A. Root distribution with changes in
distance and depth of two-year-old cactus pears
Opuntia ficus-indica and
O. robusta plants. South African
Journal of Botany, v.72, p.434-441, 2006a. DOI:
10.1016/j.sajb.2005.12.008.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2005.12.0...
, 2006bSNYMAN, H.A. A greenhouse study on root dynamics
of cactus pears, Opuntia ficus-indica
and O.
robusta. Journal of Arid
Environments, v.65, p.529-542, 2006b. DOI:
10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.10.004.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005....
).
ΔA positive values were significantly higher in areas cultivated with the IPA Sertânia and Miúda clones during periods 1 and 9, after a long drought. In turn, more negative values were recorded in period 6, when less rainfall was observed (Table 3).
In terms of ETd (Figure 1), differences between clones were found only in periods 3 and 4, which had the highest rainfall. In these periods, the Miúda and Orelha de Elefante Mexicana clones had the highest ET values when compared with IPA Sertânia. This result is associated to the highest deep drainage, which occurred in periods 3 and 4.
Mean daily evapotranspiration of the evaluated forage cactus clones and accumulated rainfall (P) of the experimental period of 499 days divided into nine periods. Period 1, from October 20th, 2010, to December 15th, 2010; period 2, from December 16th, 2010, to February 9th, 2011; period 3, from February 10th, 2011, to April 18th, 2011; period 4, from April 19th, 2011, to June 17th, 2011; period 5, from June 18th, 2011, to August 8th, 2011; period 6, from August 9th, 2011, to September 26th, 2011; period 7, from September 27th, 2011, to November 14th, 2011; period 8, from November 15th, 2011, to January 4th, 2012; and period 9, from January 5th, 2012, to March 2nd, 2012. Equal letters in vertical bars do not differ by Tukey's studentized test, at 5% probability. nsNonsignificant. The values of DP/CR, ΔA, and ETac are averages of three replicates. IPA, IPA Sertânia; MIU, Miúda; and OEM, Orelha de Elefante Mexicana.
Therefore, the ETac and ETd values for forage
cactus during the 499 days of the experiment were of 1,170 and
2.35 mm per day, respectively. Lower values were reported by
Han & Felker
(1997)HAN, H.; FELKER, P. Field validation of
water-use efficiency of the CAM plant Opuntia
ellisiana in south Texas. Journal of Arid
Environments, v.36, p.133-148, 1997. DOI:
10.1006/jare.1996.0202.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1996.0202...
in the semiarid region of Kingsville,
Texas, USA, with climatic conditions similar to those of present
study. The authors obtained mean values of 1.53 mm per day for
O. ellisiana in the
third production year during a period with 883 mm of rainfall.
However, during the fourth production year, with 662 mm of rain,
the actual evapotranspiration rate was 1.37 mm per day. In terms
of accumulated evapotranspiration, values around 559 and 499 mm
were registered in the third and fourth cycles,
respectively.
The values obtained in the present study are closer to the mean daily
rates of 2.5 mm reported by Consoli et al. (2013)CONSOLI, S.; INGLESE, G.; INGLESE, P.
Determination of evapotranspiration and annual biomass
productivity of a cactus pear [Opuntia
ficus-indica L.(Mill.)]
orchard in a semiarid environment. Journal of
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, v.139, p.680-690,
2013. DOI:
10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000589.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-47...
, when the atmospheric
demand was in the order of 5.0 mm per day and when the
accumulated actual evapotranspiration was 1,329 mm. These
results confirm that the evapotranspiration rates of CAM species
are lower than those of C3 and C4 plants
due to CO2 assimilation priority during the night,
when atmospheric demand is low (Cushman, 2001CUSHMAN, J.C. Crassulacean acid metabolism. A
plastic photosynthetic adaptation to arid environments.
Plant Physiology, v.127, p.1439-1448, 2001. DOI:
10.1104/pp.010818.
https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.010818...
). Studies conducted in the
Brazilian semiarid conditions showed evapotranspiration rates
ranging from 1.2 to 7.5 mm per day. Silva et al. (2012)SILVA, T.G.F. da; MOURA, M.S.B. de; ZOLNIER, S.;
SOARES, J.M.; VIEIRA, V.J. de S.; FARIA JÚNIOR, W.G.
Requerimento hídrico e coeficiente de cultura da
cana-de-açúcar irrigada no semiárido brasileiro.
Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental,
v.16, p.64-71, 2012. DOI:
10.1590/S1415-43662012000100009.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-4366201200...
found mean of 4.7
mm per day for C4 sugarcane plant
(Saccharum spp.) during the irrigated
ratoon cycle. However, Lima et
al. (2011)LIMA, J.R. de S.; ANTONINO, A.C.D.; LIRA, C.A.B.
de O.; SOUZA, E.S. de; SILVA, I. de F. da. Balanço de
energia e evapotranspiração de feijão caupi sob
condições de sequeiro. Revista Ciência Agronômica,
v.42, p.65-74, 2011. DOI:
10.1590/S1806-66902011000100009.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-6690201100...
, while studying C3 cowpea
plant (Vigna unguiculata L.) under rainfed
conditions in the state of Paraiba, Brazil, found
evapotranspiration mean of 3.8 mm per day; however, the values
varied from 1.0 to 6.0 mm per day.
Despite that, ET daily mean rates for forage cactus clones were low
(<2.5 mm) during the present experiment. Values ranged
between 0.71 and 4.22 mm per day for IPA Sertânia; 0.86 and 5.42
mm per day for Miúda; and 0.74 and 5.29 mm per day for Orelha de
Elefante Mexicana (Figure
1). Consoli et al.
(2013)CONSOLI, S.; INGLESE, G.; INGLESE, P.
Determination of evapotranspiration and annual biomass
productivity of a cactus pear [Opuntia
ficus-indica L.(Mill.)]
orchard in a semiarid environment. Journal of
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, v.139, p.680-690,
2013. DOI:
10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000589.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-47...
recorded values up to 4.2 mm per day for
cactus pear. For other CAM species, such as pineapple
[Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.], Azevedo et al. (2007)AZEVEDO, P.V. de; SOUZA, C.B. de; SILVA, B.B.
da; SILVA, V.P.R. da. Water requirements of pineapple
crop grown in a tropical environment, Brazil.
Agricultural Water Management, v.88, p.201-208, 2007.
DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2006.10.021.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2006.10....
reported mean values of 4.1 mm per day, reaching up to 4.6 mm
per day in the second vegetative growth stage. It is known that
some CAM species adjust their standard CO2 capture in
C3 plants when subjected to higher water
availability conditions (Taiz
& Zeiger, 2009TAIZ, L.; ZEIGER, E. Fisiologia vegetal. 4.ed.
Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2009. 819p.). However, young cladodes and
flower buds open the stomata during the day, whereas adult
cladodes open them during the night, as described by Acevedo et al. (1983)ACEVEDO, E.; BADILLA, I.; NOBEL, P.S. Water
relations, diurnal acidity changes, and productivity of
a cultivated cactus, Opuntia
ficus-indica. Plant Physiology, v.72,
p.775-780, 1983. DOI:
10.1104/pp.72.3.775.
https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.72.3.775...
.
Therefore, as observed in the present study, in high soil water
availability periods, it is expected that the ET of forage
cactus will reach its highest values, near those found in the
environment for C3 and C4 plants. However,
this result is associated with the soil water evaporation
component (Han & Felker,
1997HAN, H.; FELKER, P. Field validation of
water-use efficiency of the CAM plant Opuntia
ellisiana in south Texas. Journal of Arid
Environments, v.36, p.133-148, 1997. DOI:
10.1006/jare.1996.0202.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1996.0202...
).
The highest daily ET rates were observed for periods 2, 3, and 4,
which were mostly rainy days. ET rise occurred in period 7, when
it increased with higher rainfall levels (Figure 1). In period 8, there was a new
reduction at the end of the cycle, followed by a further
increase due to new rainfall events. In periods 4 and 9, in
which the total rainfall did not exceed accumulated ET, forage
cactus continued to show ET values above average, which is
possibly related to its ability to extract soil water and water
stored in the cladode. Between periods 5 and 8, rainfall
reduction was also followed by a decrease in ET rates. In low
soil water availability conditions, the apical meristem of
cactus pear roots dies while the deeper cells continue to divide
and increase their length, but at lower rates (Dubrovsky et al.,
1998DUBROVSKY, J.G.; NORTH, G.B.; NOBEL, P.S. Root
growth, developmental changes in the apex, and
hydraulic conductivity for Opuntia
ficus-indica during drought. New
Phytologist, v.138, p.75-82, 1998. DOI:
10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998.00884.x.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998...
). In addition, forage cactus water loss occurs
preferably by parenchyma, allowing higher collenchyma hydration
and ensuring continuous productive increment (Goldstein et al.,
1991GOLDSTEIN, G.; ORTEGA, J.K.E.; NERD, A.; NOBEL,
P.S. Diel patterns of water potential components for
the Crassulacean acid metabolism plant Opuntia
ficus-indica when
well-watered or droughted. Plant Physiology, v.95,
p.274-280, 1991. DOI:
10.1104/pp.95.1.274.
https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.95.1.274...
).
The ET/ETo is indicative of crop evapotranspiration
response to atmospheric demand. High values were verified for
the wettest periods, especially for the Miúda and Orelha de
Elefante Mexicana clones during period 3, when the atmospheric
evaporative demand decreased, resulting in
ET/ETo>1 (Figure
2). This result is related to air vapor deficit
reduction, which increased nocturnal transpiration by the cacti
(Acevedo et al.,
1983ACEVEDO, E.; BADILLA, I.; NOBEL, P.S. Water
relations, diurnal acidity changes, and productivity of
a cultivated cactus, Opuntia
ficus-indica. Plant Physiology, v.72,
p.775-780, 1983. DOI:
10.1104/pp.72.3.775.
https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.72.3.775...
).
ET/ETo ratio for the three evaluated forage cactus clones, rainfall (P), and reference evapotranspiration (ETo) during the experimental period of 499 days divided into nine periods. Period 1, from October 20th, 2010, to December 15th, 2010; period 2, from December 16th, 2010, to February 9th, 2011; period 3, from February 10th, 2011, to April 18th, 2011; period 4, from April 19th, 2011, to June 17th, 2011; period 5, from June 18th, 2011, to August 8th, 2011; period 6, from August 9th, 2011, to September 26th, 2011; period 7, from September 27th, 2011, to November 14th, 2011; period 8, from November 15th, 2011, to January 4th, 2012; and period 9, from January 5th, 2012, to March 2nd, 2012. Equal letters in vertical bars do not differ by Tukey's studentized test, at 5% probability. nsNonsignificant. The values of DP/CR, ΔA, and ETac are averages of three replicates. IPA, IPA Sertânia; MIU, Miúda; and OEM, Orelha de Elefante Mexicana.
The lowest values were obtained in periods 5 to 9 due to the lower
rain events and increased atmospheric evaporative demand.
Furthermore, the ET/ETo values of the clones, in low
soil water availability conditions, are very similar. On
average, the ET/ETo values of the IPA Sertânia,
Miúda, and Orelha de Elefante Mexicana clones were around
0.41±0.22, 0.50±0.30, and 0.49±0.29,
respectively, and the mean for the three clones was equal to
0.47±0.05. Consoli et al.
(2013CONSOLI, S.; INGLESE, G.; INGLESE, P.
Determination of evapotranspiration and annual biomass
productivity of a cactus pear [Opuntia
ficus-indica L.(Mill.)]
orchard in a semiarid environment. Journal of
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, v.139, p.680-690,
2013. DOI:
10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000589.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-47...
) reported relative ET/ETo mean
values of 0.40 for forage cactus and between 0.25 and 0.50 for
cactus pear. Silva et al.
(2012)SILVA, T.G.F. da; MOURA, M.S.B. de; ZOLNIER, S.;
SOARES, J.M.; VIEIRA, V.J. de S.; FARIA JÚNIOR, W.G.
Requerimento hídrico e coeficiente de cultura da
cana-de-açúcar irrigada no semiárido brasileiro.
Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental,
v.16, p.64-71, 2012. DOI:
10.1590/S1415-43662012000100009.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-4366201200...
found ET/ETo values ranging
from 0.65 to 1.15 for irrigated sugar cane grown in the
Brazilian semiarid region. For cowpea, this ratio ranged between
0.83 and 0.99, depending on the phenological phase (Lima et al., 2011LIMA, J.R. de S.; ANTONINO, A.C.D.; LIRA, C.A.B.
de O.; SOUZA, E.S. de; SILVA, I. de F. da. Balanço de
energia e evapotranspiração de feijão caupi sob
condições de sequeiro. Revista Ciência Agronômica,
v.42, p.65-74, 2011. DOI:
10.1590/S1806-66902011000100009.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-6690201100...
).
Azevedo et al.
(2007)AZEVEDO, P.V. de; SOUZA, C.B. de; SILVA, B.B.
da; SILVA, V.P.R. da. Water requirements of pineapple
crop grown in a tropical environment, Brazil.
Agricultural Water Management, v.88, p.201-208, 2007.
DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2006.10.021.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2006.10....
studied pineapple, another CAM, whose
ET/ETo was 0.88, slightly changing over its
cycle.
Shortly after the wettest periods, the increase in the CAI was superior for the Orelha de Elefante Mexicana clone, whereas a progressive increase was observed for Miúda until period 7, when its evolution rate slightly decreased (Figure 3). In turn, IPA Sertânia showed higher increase rates for the CAI at the end of the analyzed period. Although the CAI is larger for the Orelha de Elefante Mexicana clone, ET rates were not higher when compared to those of the other two clones. At the end of the studied period, the soil cover index for the Orelha de Elefante Mexicana clone was of 32±4%, higher than that of IPA Sertânia, which was equal to 24±3%, and of Miúda, to 22±3%, both species of the genera Nopalea. The increases in the CAI and soil cover level during periods 3 and 4 may have contributed to higher ET rates.
Cladode area index increment and values at the end of the cycle of the three evaluated forage cactus clones during the experimental period of 499 days divided into nine periods. Period 1, from October 20th, 2010, to December 15th, 2010; period 2, from December 16th, 2010, to February 9th, 2011; period 3, from February 10th, 2011, to April 18th, 2011; period 4, from April 19th, 2011, to June 17th, 2011; period 5, from June 18th, 2011, to August 8th, 2011; period 6, from August 9th, 2011, to September 26th, 2011; period 7, from September 27th, 2011, to November 14th, 2011; period 8, from November 15th, 2011, to January 4th, 2012; and period 9, from January 5th, 2012, to March 2nd, 2012. Equal letters in vertical bars do not differ by Tukey's studentized test, at 5% probability. nsNonsignificant. The values of DP/CR, ΔA, and ETac are averages of three replicates. IPA, IPA Sertânia; MIU, Miúda; and OEM, Orelha de Elefante Mexicana.
The dashed line in the relationship between ET and ETo
indicates that, under lower soil water availability conditions,
ETo had little influence (Figure 4 A, D, and G).
However, under higher soil water availability conditions
(continuous lines), ET values decreased with increased
ETo, showing some control on transpiration.
This tendency is similar between the three clones; however, the
control on transpiration was clearly evident for Orelha de
Elefante Mexicana (R2=0.69, angular coefficient =
-2.67) and IPA Sertânia (R2=0.70, angular coefficient
= -2.00), although lower for Miúda (R2=0.80, angular
coefficient = -2.73), indicating that this last clone responds
rapidly to variations in the environment, in a proportion of
2.73 mm of ET for 1.0 mm of ETo, i.e. a 1.0-mm
increment of atmospheric demand promotes actual
evapotranspiration reduction in 2.73 mm. This result can be
associated with specific foliar area and increase of stomata
number per unit cladode area in the Miúda clone. The smallest
cladode area of this clone increases the interaction with the
environment. The cladode area of the Orelha de Elefante Mexicana
and IPA Sertânia clones is larger than that of the Miúda clone
(Silva et al.,
2014SILVA, T.G.F. da; MIRANDA, K.R. de; SANTOS, D.C.
dos; QUEIROZ, M.G. de; SILVA, M. da C.; CRUZ NETO, J.F.
da; ARAÚJO, J.E.M. Área do cladódio de clones de palma
forrageira: modelagem, análise e aplicabilidade.
Agrária, v.9, p.633-641, 2014. DOI:
10.5039/agraria.v9i4a4344.
https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v9i4a434...
); therefore, its interaction is lower.
Relationship between the actual evapotranspiration (ET) during the studied period and the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) of the evaluated forage cactus clones, cladode area index increment (ΔCAI), and soil water storage variation (ΔA) during the experimental period of 499 days, divided into nine periods (in parenthesis). Dashed lines represent lower soil water availability; and continuous lines, higher soil water availability. Period 1, from October 20th, 2010, to December 15th, 2010; period 2, from December 16th, 2010, to February 9th, 2011; period 3, from February 10th, 2011, to April 18th, 2011; period 4, from April 19th, 2011, to June 17th, 2011; period 5, from June 18th, 2011, to August 8th, 2011; period 6, from August 9th, 2011, to September 26th, 2011; period 7, from September 27th, 2011, to November 14th, 2011; period 8, from November 15th, 2011, to January 4th, 2012; and period 9, from January 5th, 2012, to March 2nd, 2012. The values of ET, ΔCAI, and ΔA are averages of three replicates. IPA, IPA Sertânia; MIU, Miúda; and OEM, Orelha de Elefante Mexicana.
The ET rate of the Orelha de Elefante Mexicana clone was affected by
the increase in the ΔCAI, with an ET rate of 0.87 mm for
each 0.1 m2 m-2 increment per month (Figure 4 H). This clone
presents greater cladode area (Silva et al., 2014SILVA, T.G.F. da; MIRANDA, K.R. de; SANTOS, D.C.
dos; QUEIROZ, M.G. de; SILVA, M. da C.; CRUZ NETO, J.F.
da; ARAÚJO, J.E.M. Área do cladódio de clones de palma
forrageira: modelagem, análise e aplicabilidade.
Agrária, v.9, p.633-641, 2014. DOI:
10.5039/agraria.v9i4a4344.
https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v9i4a434...
); therefore, the development
of the CAI promotes ET increase. The other two clones were not
affected by ΔCAI (Figure 4 B
and E).
The lowest ET values occurred (dashed line in Figures 4 C, F, and I) especially when ΔA was negative in periods 5, 6, 7, and 8. However, low ET was also observed when ΔA was positive in period 1, but atmospheric demand was lower. ET rate as function of ΔA for the Miúda clone was lower (angular coefficient = 0.009) than for IPA Sertânia (angular coefficient = 0.012) and Orelha de Elefante Mexicana (angular coefficient = 0.015). This indicates slower water consumption with soil water storage variation, i.e., 0.009 mm of evapotranspiration for each 1.0 mm of ΔA. This result can be indicative of the lower plasticity of this clone to variations in the environment.
In the rainy period, the increment in ET values of the IPA Sertânia
clone was associated to ΔA increase (R2 = 0.75),
when the CAI still presented small magnitude (continuous lines,
Figure 4 C). This
clone has an erect growth habit, unlike the two other, which
have greater lateral growth (Silva et al., 2014SILVA, T.G.F. da; MIRANDA, K.R. de; SANTOS, D.C.
dos; QUEIROZ, M.G. de; SILVA, M. da C.; CRUZ NETO, J.F.
da; ARAÚJO, J.E.M. Área do cladódio de clones de palma
forrageira: modelagem, análise e aplicabilidade.
Agrária, v.9, p.633-641, 2014. DOI:
10.5039/agraria.v9i4a4344.
https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v9i4a434...
). Moreover, the CAI
evolution was slower during water availability periods, leading
to a higher contribution of the evaporation component than of
the transpiration component on the ET of this clone. Han & Felker
(1997)HAN, H.; FELKER, P. Field validation of
water-use efficiency of the CAM plant Opuntia
ellisiana in south Texas. Journal of Arid
Environments, v.36, p.133-148, 1997. DOI:
10.1006/jare.1996.0202.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1996.0202...
found that the evaporation component can
represent, on average, 45% of ET, but varies over time with the
soil cover index. This trend was not observed for the Orelha de
Elefante Mexicana and Miúda clones.
Conclusions
-
Water dynamics in soil cultivated with the three evaluated clones of forage cactus under rainfed conditions, in the semiarid region of Brazil, are similar, resulting in similar water consumption.
-
Atmospheric demand controls the evapotranspiration of the evaluated clones only in higher soil water availability, whereas, in this condition, the water consumption of the Miúda clone decreases more rapidly with the increase of atmospheric demand.
-
The increment of the cladode area index increases the water consumption of the Orelha de Elefante Mexicana clone.
-
The Miúda clone presents lower plasticity to soil water availability than the others clones in dry conditions.
Acknowledegments
To Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, process 475279/2010-7) and to Fundação de Amparo à Ciência e Tecnologia do Estado de Pernambuco (Facepe, process APQ-0215-01/10), for financial support; and to Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (Capes), for scholarship granted
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Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
July 2015
History
-
Received
22 Jan 2015 -
Accepted
26 May 2015