Meanings of Retirement: A Scoping Review

Significados da Aposentadoria: Uma Revisão de Escopo

Significados de la Jubilación: Una Revisión del Alcance

Abstract

Retirement is a central phenomenon in our society, and it is essential to know its current meanings. This article mapped and analyzed the studies about the meanings of retirement through a scoping review based on the PRISMA guidelines. Considering the eligibility criteria and search strategies, 3,904 results were analyzed, with 39 empirical scientific articles being selected. Analyses of publication data and their results demonstrated a wide variety of investigated concepts and some methodological trends, generally with a qualitative approach. Although most studies address the construct in two dimensions (positive and negative), more complex approaches are discussed. A model of meanings with five dimensions was presented (exploring new horizons, absence and search for meaning, contributing on your own way, time to relax, and acquisition of rights), which must be analyzed considering five other groups of influences (individual differences and resources, contextual, job, and situational factors). The study advances theoretically, although future improvements are required.

Keywords:
Retirement; Meanings; Life Experiences; Revision

Resumo

A aposentadoria é um fenômeno central em nossa sociedade, sendo primordial conhecer os seus significados atuais. Este trabalho levantou e analisou os estudos referentes ao assunto, por meio de uma revisão de escopo de estudos empíricos com base nas diretrizes do PRISMA. A partir dos critérios de elegibilidade e das estratégias de busca, 3.904 resultados foram analisados, sendo selecionados 39 artigos científicos empíricos. As análises dos dados das publicações e seus resultados demonstraram uma ampla variedade de conceitos investigados e algumas tendências metodológicas, em geral com a abordagem qualitativa. Embora a maior parte dos estudos abordem o construto em duas dimensões (positiva e negativa), discute-se abordagens mais complexas, sendo apresentado um modelo de contendo cinco dimensões (Explorar novos horizontes, Ausência e busca de significado, Contribuir à sua maneira, Tempo para relaxar e Aquisição de direitos), que devem ser analisados considerando cinco grupos de influências (diferenças e recursos individuais e fatores contextuais, trabalhistas e situacionais). O estudo avança teoricamente, sendo necessários aprimoramentos futuros.

Palavras-chave:
Aposentadoria; significados; experiências de vida; revisão

Resumen

La jubilación es un fenómeno central en nuestra sociedad, y es fundamental conocer sus significados actuales. Este trabajo planteó y analizó los estudios relacionados con el tema, a través de una revisión de alcance basada en los lineamientos PRISMA. Con base en los criterios de elegibilidad y estrategias de búsqueda, se analizaron 3.904 resultados, seleccionándose 39 artículos científicos empíricos. Los análisis de datos de publicación y sus resultados demostraron una amplia variedad de conceptos investigados y algunas tendencias metodológicas, generalmente con un enfoque cualitativo. Si bien la mayoría de los estudios abordan el constructo en dos dimensiones (positivas y negativas), se discuten enfoques más complejos, y se presenta un modelo de significados que contiene cinco dimensiones (exploración de nuevos horizontes, ausencia y búsqueda de sentido, contribución propia, tiempo para relajarse y adquisición de derechos), que deben ser analizados considerando cinco grupos de influencias (diferencias y recursos individuales y factores contextuales, laborales y situacionales). El estudio avanza teóricamente, requiriendo futuras mejoras.

Palabras clave:
Jubilación; Significados; Experiencias vitales; Revisión

Introduction

Man’s relationships with work over time have been diverse, starting from conceptions of punishment until reaching current notions of vocation and personal achievement. Consistent with contemporary values, work has been seen as a central category to the formation of the individual, and has also been perceived by Psychology as one of the main social facts, influencing the construction of identity and socialization (Schweitzer et al., 2016). The appreciation of work by the current society means that retirement is seen as one of the biggest changes in adult life (Henkens et al., 2017).

In psychological terms, retirement can be considered as process in which phases such as planning, decision, transition, and adaptation occur dynamically (Beer & Bowling, 2013; Wang & Shi, 2014). On the contrary to what stereotypes often posit, the literature does not present a consensus on retirement’s definition, trajectory, or consequences (Amorim & França, 2019; Beer & Bowling, 2013), with a wide possibility of individual experiences.

Similarly to the diversity of meanings attributed to work, (Salanova et al., 1996), there are several ways of understanding retirement. From a theoretical point of view, many studies have addressed the meanings of retirement by associating them with positive aspects, such as achievement, rest, and freedom, or with negative aspects, such as devaluation, marginalization, unproductivity, and social or financial losses (Andrade & Torres, 2020; Antunes et al., 2018; Árraga et al., 2014; Grossin, 1986; Gvozd et al., 2015; Macêdo et al., 2017; Marotz Baden et al., 1995; Martins et al., 2014; Moraes et al., 2019; Padova & Lucas, 2017; Piscoya & Washed, 2014; Price, 2000; Silva et al., 2015).

Beyond these conceptualizations, other studies represented important contributions over time. In the 1980s, Hornstein and Wapner (1985) cited the existence of four general ways of experiencing retirement, represented by continuity (without major changes in lifestyle); by the transition to old age (with a quiet lifestyle); as a new beginning (with time to carry out new activities); and by an imposed rupture (associated with losses and without other activities that replace work).

More recently, in a study with Canadian retirees, Sargent et al. (2011) presented four possible meanings of retirement. The meanings are (a) the exploration of new possibilities, involving engagement in new activities, self-discovery, and self-development; (b) the search for meaning, as retirement is perceived as a loss of value for society while work is seen as a guide to identity; (c) contribution in your own way, involving the maintenance of some type of professional activity; and (d) time to relax, which considers retirement an opportunity to regain control, autonomy, and freedom.

Complementing these contributions, Sargent et al. (2013) indicated that centrally industrialized countries are currently experiencing two facets of the meanings of retirement. The first one concerns the freedom provided to those who have had access to the right to retire. For those who have not fully benefited from these plans, in the second one, the moment came to mean even more difficult circumstances. For these and other authors, it is possible to cite a kind of reinvention of the current meaning of retirement, understood by some people as a period of life for rest and leisure after the end of their career, and rejected by others as it is not attractive or compatible with their reality (Caradec, 2017; Contzen et al., 2017; Grødem & Kitterød, 2021; Ramos et al., 2021; Sargent et al., 2013).

Despite the significant contributions, the subject has not yet reached theoretical maturity. Studies were identified from literature reviews or meta-analyses that investigated retirement and well-being (Amorim & França, 2019), social support (Antunes & Moré, 2017), financial planning (Schuabb & França, 2020), adjustment (Barbosa et al., 2016; Rue et al., 2022), planning and decision-making (Topa et al., 2008) and early retirement (Topa et al., 2018). However, studies with similar methodological designs regarding the meanings of retirement were not found. Thus, a gap related to the topic was identified, which would present a discussion in a non-biased way, through a structured and replicable method. Therefore, a scope review is recommended (Steil et al., 2022).

As a recent systematization approach, a scoping review is indicated when the goal is to define the scope of a set of studies, clarify concepts, and verify research methods (Munn et al., 2018). Using this type of analysis, it is possible to understand the phenomenon more broadly, compare changes over time, explore its construction, verify possible related variables, and, as a result, advance theoretically on the topic (Amorim & França, 2019). Considering the lack of consolidation of theoretical references regarding the meanings of retirement, the analysis of empirical studies can facilitate the summary of evidence, contributing to the identification of key concepts and to systematization of theories.

The questions of this study are: What is theoretically known about the meanings of retirement so far? What are the characteristics of the studies already developed, their main findings, and the needs for future research? Understanding the meanings of retirement is interesting and important in itself because the analysis of a major social fact allows progress in understanding the meaning of life, lifestyles, adopted visions, project development, work relationships and career needs, and ambitions for the future, among other aspects (Sargent et al., 2011; 2013). This knowledge is applicable in different contexts and activities, and it is essential for Human Resources actions in organizations, career counselors, clinical psychologists, and other professionals, guiding appropriate and realistic interventions, which make the retirement process more cohesive and healthy (Henkens et al., 2017; Sargent et al., 2011).

This type of study becomes urgent when we consider global socio-demographic changes, given the accelerated aging process in several countries (Nagarajan et al., 2021), which has a large impact on the number of older workers and retirees, as well as the policies that serve this population. In this context, understanding the contemporary meanings of retirement is one of the biggest questions to be answered by the Psychology field (Henkens et al., 2017). Thus, this study aimed to map and analyze empirical studies relating to the meanings of retirement, through a scoping review.

Method

This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Extension of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA ScR) guidelines by the Tricco et al. checklist (2018). The review protocol was developed by the research team, composed of a doctor in psychology, a master in occupational studies and a psychology student.

Eligibility criteria

In order to guide the research, the eligibility criteria were outlined. Were included in this study scientific empirical articles, written in English, Portuguese, and Spanish, without distinction of year, and that have been developed with the adult and elderly population. Besides that, the articles also included the meaning or significance of retirement as a dependent or independent variable, phenomenon, or result of the study. Conversely, dissertations, theses, book chapters, and books were excluded, as well as studies in languages other than English, Portuguese, or Spanish, studies without an abstract available, theoretical studies, studies with children or adolescents. Studies that addressed retirement exclusively under the economic criterion or that were associated with old age and constructs such as social representations, perceptions, feelings or experiences in retirement, without reference to meaning, were also excluded.

Search strategies

As a search strategy, descriptors in English, Portuguese, and Spanish were used, without temporal limitations. Specific descriptors were used with all following words in the title (“Aposentadoria AND sentido OR significado”, “Retirement AND mean OR meaning” e “jubilacion AND sentido OR significado”) and the exact following terms anywhere in the article (“sentido da aposentadoria”, “significado da aposentadoria”, “retirement meaning”, “meaning of retirement”, “sentido de la jubilación”, “significado de la jubilación”). The search was conducted electronically, using Scielo, PsycInfo, BVS, PubMed, IngentaConnect, Elsevier, and Google Scholar portals. For Google Scholar, the first 200 results were considered for each descriptor and exact term, as recommended by Haddaway et al. (2015).

Data collect

Based on the eligibility criteria and search strategies, data collection was conducted. To expand the search and avoid bias, this step occurred in two phases. In the first phase, the three reviewers searched for articles, and each portal was reviewed by two reviewers.

From the search for descriptors, 3,904 results were identified. 245 were from Scielo, 628 from PsycInfo, 639 from BVS, 53 from PubMed, 727 from IngentaConnect, 179 from Elsevier and 1,433 from Google Scholar. After reading the title and abstract, it was identified that 883 of the results were not scientific articles (criterion 1), 23 were not in English, Portuguese or Spanish (criterion 2), 50 did not have an abstract available (criterion 3), six were not empirical studies (criterion 4), 1356 did not investigate retirement (criterion 5), and another 1357 did not consider the meaning of retirement as a variable (criterion 6). Furthermore, 150 articles were excluded due to repetition, leaving 79 articles to be used for the study.

In the second phase, the 79 pre-selected articles by the reviewers were compiled. Of the total number of articles, 25 were convergent between at least two reviewers, and 54 were divergent. After fully reading the 54 divergent works and discussion among the team, 40 articles were excluded based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In the end, 39 articles were selected for the review. The identification and selection flow in the form of a diagram adapted from PRISMA (Moher et al., 2009) is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.
Identification and selection diagram, adapted from PRISMA

Results

Publication data

Regarding the year of publication, one study was published in the 1970s (2.6%), one in the 1980s (2.6%), four studies in the 1990s (10.2%), three studies in the 2000s (7.7%), 25 studies between 2011 and 2020 (64.1%), and five studies from 2021 onwards (12.8%). As to the country in which the study was developed, 22 studies were developed in Latin America (56.4%), 10 studies in the USA and Canada (25.6%), five studies in Europe (12.8%), and two studies in Australia (5.2%).

Concerning the investigated topic, most studies delved into the meaning of retirement, cultural meaning, and social representations, totaling 21 studies (53.8%). A percentage of 30.8% (12 studies) investigated beliefs, images, expectations, perceptions and preparation for retirement, and a group of six studies (15.4%) investigated variables related to well-being, satisfaction, experiences, adaptation, and retirement in general.

Methodological data

Regarding the type of study, the majority were qualitative (29 studies, 74.3%), followed by seven quantitative studies (17.9%) and three qualitative-quantitative studies (7.8%). When talking about designs, the vast majority were exploratory or descriptive studies (32 studies, 82%). Three studies were cross-sectional (8.0%), and one was experimental-intervention (2.5%), instrument construction (2.5%), longitudinal (2.5%) and case study (2.5%). As to data collection, the majority used interviews (23 studies, 60%), followed by questionnaires (nine studies, 23%), and studies with questionnaires and interviews together (four studies, 10.5%). One study used free association (2.5%), a focus group (2.5%), and another used secondary data from newspapers (2.5%).

Concerning the investigated sample, 13 studies (33.4%) collected data from active workers and adults, couples, public servants, women in the job market, young adults, nursing workers, and rural producers. Another portion of studies collected data from retirees and elderly people, whether retired in general, or specific groups such as public servants, couples, teachers, and retired executives, totaling 12 studies (30.8%). A third portion, consisting of nine studies (23%), developed studies with samples of older workers, and a fourth portion with groups of workers and retirees together (five studies, 12.8%).

Results related to the meanings of retirement

Regarding the results found by the studies, the findings were concentrated in four groups: i) positive and negative meanings; ii) meaning as a multidimensional phenomenon; iii) meaning as a right; and iv) influences on meaning. These categories will be presented in detail below.

The first group, represented by the largest number of studies, consisted of understanding retirement as a positive moment, highlighting aspects related to freedom, deservingness, family, and social coexistence, but also as a negative moment, alluding to inactivity, disability, financial and social losses. (Antloga et al., 2017; Antunes et al., 2018; August, 2011; Boehs & Silva, 2017; Bressan et al., 2013; Carvalho et al., 2021; Gettings & Anderson, 2021; Gvozd et al., 2015; Loureiro et al., 2015; Moraes et al., 2019; Moreira, 2011; Ramos et al., 2021; Vianna & Melo-Silva, 2009). Some studies found mostly positive meanings (Árraga et al., 2014; Atchley, 1974; Fudge, 1998; Machado & Lucas, 2017; Padova & Lucas, 2017), while in others, negative meanings were predominant among participants (Nascimento & Polia, 2019; Silva et al., 2015; Smith & Dougherty, 2017).

The second group concentrated on studies that considered meanings as a multidimensional concept. These dimensions referred to: general retirement expectations, mental health and self-care, regulation and self-efficacy and social insertion and recognition (Andrade & Torres, 2020); worker’s rights, deserved rest, idleness, new stage of life, and time to enjoy (Macêdo et al., 2017); initial feelings about retirement, the opportunity to do what you like, feelings of uselessness, desire to return to the world of work, lack of friends, feeling of duty accomplished, lack of preparation for retirement, quality of life for retirees (Martins et al., 2014); and exploring new horizons, searching for meaning, contributing in your own way, and time to relax (Sargent et al., 2011).

The third group of results consisted of studies that highlighted retirement as a right. Addressing the acquisition of rights, these studies showed that many retirees continued to work due to the financial loss associated with retirement, negative perceptions of the process, the bureaucracy involved in acquiring the right, or the impossibility of transferring work responsibilities (Contzen et al., 2017; Costa, 2022; Marotz Baden et al., 1995; Silva & Helal, 2017).

Finally, a fourth group of results highlighted influences on meaning, which can differ according to individual, family, social, contextual, and work factors and situations such as involuntary retirement and participation in interventions (Aguilera-Velasco et al., 2020; Andrade & Torres, 2020; Árraga et al., 2014; August, 2011; Karp, 1989; Kojola & Moen, 2016). It is important to highlight that a considerable number of studies highlighted gender issues in their results, relating female retirement to domestic work and family care, and male retirement to issues of income, hobbies, and interests (Gibson et al., 2002; Grødem & Kitterød, 2021; Hermida et al., 2016; Loretto & Vickerstaff, 2013; Onyx & Benton, 1996; Price, 2000). All results are presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Compilation of data from selected studies

	Author (Year) (Country)	Construct		Group (n)	Design (Data collect)	Results
1	Aguilera-Velasco et al., (2020) (Colombia)	Cultural meaning		Retirees (22)	Experimental, qualitative intervention (Free Association)	Before the intervention, participants defined retirement fundamentally as rest. Afterwards, it was defined mainly as joy.
2	Andrade & Torres (2020) (Brazil)	Meanings		Active workers (275)	Instrument construction, quantitative (Questionnaire)	The instrument was composed of four factors (General retirement expectations; mental health and self-care; regulation and self-efficacy, and Social insertion and recognition). Differences were found in gender, timing of retirement and race.
3	Antloga et al., (2017) (Brazil)	Meanings		Retired servers (24)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Positive meanings in relation to the perception of retirement, such as freedom and merit. The meanings of social perception indicate negative aspects such as inactivity, disability and old age.
4	Antunes et al., (2018) (Brazil)	Experiences		Retired couples (6)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Different conceptions and ideas, with the possibility of enjoying free time from work and expanding contact networks and family and social coexistence, in addition to reporting losses resulting from work termination and its consequences.
5	Árraga et al., (2014) (Venezuela)	Meanings		Adults (177)	Descriptive, quantitative (Questionnaire)	Retirement is fundamentally considered as rest, sharing and family, time away from work activities and free time for other activities. Those who retire by force attribute it more negatively.
6	Atchley (1974) (USA)	Meanings		Workers, retirees (557)	Descriptive, quantitative (Questionnaire)	Retirement has a very positive meaning in all four dimensions (activity, emotional evaluation, moral evaluation and physical power), except the activity dimension.
7	August (2011) (USA)	Meanings		Pre and retired women (14)	Longitudinal, qualitative (Interviews)	Retirement conceptualized as freedom and growth, a natural final phase, a frightening period due to losses and a culmination of fulfillment or relief. There were contextual influences from family, friends and profession, and changes over time and contexts.
8	Boehs & Silva, (2017) (Brazil)	Satisfaction		Retirees from a multinational (13)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	On the one hand, the meaning was seen as a period of enjoyment of what was built throughout life, on the other hand, some mentioned anguish related to the losses caused by leaving the company/work.
9	Bressan et al., (2013) (Brazil)	Well-being		University servers (33)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Essential factors (health and finances), positive factors (education, relationships, health and cultural and leisure activities) and negative factors (loss of perspectives, financial security and lack of knowledge of the process) were mentioned.
10	Carvalho et al., (2021) (Brazil)	Meanings of work		Workers (20)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	The most used terms were rest, health, leisure and duty accomplished. The expressions quality of life, time for family and health appear to refer to earnings and there is a sense of apprehension regarding medical insurance, coexistence with colleagues and finances.
11	Contzen et al., (2017) (Switzerland)	Adaptation		Retirees and farmers (15)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Farmers continue to dedicate time and energy to the farm for the sake of farm continuity and to maintain their work ethic, while passing on responsibility at the same time. Health and inability to contribute are major threats.
12	Costa (2022) (Brazil)	Meanings		Elderly rural producers (28)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	The meaning in categories (Dignity, End of a cycle, Dishonor, Bureaucracy, Self-performance and Self-awareness). Low monetary value perceived as a lack of recognition, but which allows survival and access to services.
13	Davis & Cannava (1995) (Italy)	Beliefs, relationships and changes		Men and women (8)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Emergence of an uncompromising lightness as aesthetic interconnections emerge. The findings were congruent with Parsee’s three major themes (meaning, rhythmicity, and transcendence) and support Parsee’s theory of human becoming.
14	Fudge (1998) (Australia)	Meanings and interpretations		Retirees between 60 and 70 years old (10)	Exploratory, 1ualitative (Newspaper and Interviews)	Retirement as a time of freedom, of activities, of consolidating primary relationships and a space of your own.
15	Gettings & Anderson (2021) (USA)	Sources of information and meanings		Young adults (671 and 16)	Exploratory, Quantitative, qualitative (Questionnaire and interview)	In study 1, 13 different meanings were reported, with retirement being described as positive and negative, in fewer numbers. In study 2, conceptualizations were created in positive or negative terms.
16	Gibson et al., (2002) (USA)	Meanings		Women between 58 and 83 years old (24)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Five topics associated with meaning (freedom, end of paid work, resistance, need to be useful and husband’s retirement). Some women built lives centered on service, while others felt entitled to leisure.
17	Grødem & Kitterød (2021) (Norway)	Images		Workers between 50 and 61 years old (1249)	Cross-sectional, quantitative (Questionnaire)	Health and income are key determinants of men’s image, while partners and children are important for women.
18	Gvozd, Sakai & Haddad (2015) (Brazil)	Activities developed, planning		Pre-retirees (82)	Exploratory, quantitative (Questionnaire)	Workers reported that it is a well-deserved rest and a natural process of life, expressing positive feelings, such as freedom and satisfaction, and negative feelings such as anxiety, fear, unhappiness and a lower pay than their current salary.
19	Hermida, Tartaglini, Stefani (2016) (Argentina)	Adaptation of elderly people to retirement		Elderly (300)	Cross-sectional, quantitative (Questionnaire)	Women had more favorable attitudes and attributed a greater meaning to rest, beginning or continuity. Men had more unfavorable attitudes, which would indicate a more negative adaptation to retirement.
20	Karp (1989) (USA)	Images		Older professionals (72)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Those who have unfinished agendas at work, have high job satisfaction, perceive retirement as financially unfeasible, and maintain their health are less likely to anticipate retirement.
21	Kojola & Moen (2016) (USA)	Meanings and motivations for work and retirement		People between 52 and 68 years old (28)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	There was no single pattern, but rather a diverse mix of paths shaped by occupational identities, finances, health, and perceptions. The desire to control time and find meaning and purpose, and gender and class constraints restricted decisions.
22	Loretto & Vickerstaff (2013) (England)	Timing, meaning, planning		Couples (57)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Men focused on hobbies and interests, while women focused on caregiving and other domestic work, with many not feeling retired. For unemployed or economically inactive couples, retirement made no difference.
23	Loureiro et al., (2015) (Portugal)	Meaning -Perception of Transition		Retirees (180)	Exploratory, qualitative (Focal group)	Meanings related to continuity, readaptation, gains, losses and ambivalence (simultaneous perception of losses and gains).
24	Macêdo, Bendassolli & Torres (2017) (Brazil)	Social representations		Older servers (283)	Exploratory and descriptive, qualitative (Questionnaire)	Five categories of representations (worker’s rights, deserved rest, idleness, new stage of life, and time to enjoy). Expansion of the cultural repertoire focused on the significance of this social object.
25	Machado & Lucas (2017) (Brazil)	Implications of Retirement		Retired teachers (4)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Positive points such as freedom, routine and flexible schedules, and negative points such as the absence of students. Retirement made it possible to enjoy moments of leisure, dedicating care to the family and fulfilling their desires.
26	Martins et al., (2014) (Brazil)	Meanings		Nursing professionals (13)	Exploratory, descriptive, qualitative (Interviews)	Five categories (initial feelings about retirement, opportunity to do what you like, feelings of uselessness and desire to return to work, feeling of duty accomplished, lack of preparation for retirement, and quality of life for retirees).
27	Marotz-Baden, Keating & Munro, (1995) (USA and Canada)	Meanings		Retirees and agricultural workers (365 and 176)	Transversal, qualitative quantitative (Questionnaires and interviews)	The hypotheses related to the meaning of retirement as an exit from managerial responsibility (for the retired generation), and as an exit from property (for the younger generation) were confirmed. The older ones had a greater interest in the continuity of the family.
28	Moraes et al., (2019) (Brazil)	Expectations		Professors (20)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Most do not intend to retire but emphasize the positive aspects of retirement. Negative feelings were related to the inability to work, death, uselessness and disability. Concerns related to labor laws and rights were cited.
29	Moreira (2011) (Brazil)	Imaginaries, meaning		Professors (6)	Case study, qualitative (Interviews)	Dissociation between retirement, old age and work. Retirement should not be understood as the end of professional activities, and old age was characterized when you are unable to accomplish what you want. Hesitation between rest or work.
30	Nascimento & Polia (2019) (Brazil)	Planning, decision and meaning		Professors (11)	Descriptive, exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	The centrality of work stands out, and therefore retirement is associated with the feeling of loss of social role, status and also social ties. Most people understand retirement as a time to do what they enjoy.
31	Onyx & Benton (1996) (Australia)	Meanings		Working women (50)	Exploratory, quantitative, qualitative (Questionnaires and interviews)	Most have not made plans for their retirement, and the fact that they have inadequate financial security means they are unable to leave paid employment. Women want a reduced emphasis on employment, but not job loss.
32	Padova & Lucas (2017) (Brazil)	Well-being		Retired men (5)	Descriptive, qualitative (Interviews)	When asked about the meaning of retirement, respondents reported positively.
33	Price (2000) (USA)	Meanings		Retired women (14)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	A common theme experienced was identified: the sacrifice of professional identity after retirement, the loss of social contacts, the loss of professional challenges and the encounter with stereotypes during retirement.
34	Ramos, Cipolli, Lopes (2021) (Brazil)	Meanings		Elderly (200)	Exploratory, quantitative (Questionnaire)	52.5% indicated retirement as positive and 45.5% as negative. Dissatisfaction with income and the expectation of support from representatives is highlighted.
35	Sargent et al., (2011) (Canada)	Meanings		Retired executives (35)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Four configurations of retirement (exploring new horizons, searching for meaning, contributing in your own way, and putting your feet up). Better understanding with a focus on the future and different types of work identities.
36	Silva & Helal (2017) (Brazil)	Perception		Older workers (7)	Exploratory, qualitative (interviews)	Two dimensions (retirement and remaining at work; and aging and ability to work). Negative ideas of aging, uselessness, loss of social ties, and death, combined with financial loss, explain the choice not to retire.
37	Silva et al., (2015) (Brazil)	Conceptions and expectations		Public education professionals (20)	Exploratory, qualitative (Questionnaire and interviews)	The centrality that work has in life is observed, when relating retirement to feelings of inactivity and idleness, thus manifesting negative expectations. Need to continue working after retirement.
38	Smith & Dougherty, (2017) (USA)	Expectations		Workers (84)	Exploratory, qualitative (Interviews)	Retirement as the ultimate marker of success and individual freedom. Two fractures appeared: freedom/routine and individual responsibility/universal expectations.
39	Vianna & Melo-Silva (2009) (Brazil)	Expectations		Workers who have started the retirement process (20)	Exploratory, monitoring and qualitative (interviews in two moments)	Expectation of an increase in quality of life, based on economic conditions. The comparison between the moments highlights the search for greater freedom, family contact and quality of life, and exposes the contradictions of the process.

Discussion

With the aim of mapping and analyzing studies relating to the meanings of retirement, this scoping review examined 39 empirical studies, their characteristics, methods, and results. The data demonstrated a publication trend from 2011 onwards, possibly associated with discussions about population aging and its impacts (Henkens et al., 2017; Nagarajan et al., 2021), and a concentration in America, Europe, and Oceania, in comparison to Asian and African regions, as already highlighted by previous reviews (Amorim & França, 2019; Barbosa et al., 2016).

The analyzed samples demonstrated the extension of the subject, being an object of interest for retirees, workers, and general or specific groups (Henkens et al., 2017; Sargent et al., 2013). Added to this findings is the fact that the meaning was not only individually investigated, but also associated with previous moments - such as expectations, perceptions, and preparation of individuals, and after retirement factors - like their adaptation, experiences, and well-being, which corroborates with findings from studies on other subjects in the area (Amorim & França, 2019; Barbosa et al., 2016; Rue et al., 2022). Although this was not the main objective of the study, this finding highlights the transversality of the retirement theme as a concept that must be addressed throughout life. Despite its breadth, the participants’ proximity to retirement facilitates studies related to reflections on experiences and adaptation (Amabile, 2019), while a greater distance to retirement contributes to the analysis of phenomena such as expectations and representations.

The methodological data indicated the predominance of the qualitative approach. This method is, in fact, recommended for obtaining deep and particular knowledge (Amabile, 2019; Tittoni & Jacques, 2013), justifying the authors’ choice. Despite this, the studies focus on exploratory and descriptive designs, collected by interviews, so that it is possible to emphasize the need for studies with more diversified methods, for this and other topics (Amabile, 2019). Among the methodological innovations, some studies stand out for their use of free associations (Aguileira-Velasco et al., 2020), focus groups (Loureiro et al., 2015), and qualitative longitudinal methods (August, 2011).

The results regarding retirement meanings demonstrated consistency with existing theoretical references. The predominant view is that retirement is associated with both positive and negative meanings, aligned with the perception of gains or losses arising from the process (Bressan et al., 2012; França & Vaughan, 2008; Macedo et al., 2017). Despite the consolidation of this view, it may be a simplistic way of approaching the concept.

Among the most complete theoretical possibilities is the analysis by categories, which demonstrates the complexity of retirement, constantly reiterated by several authors (Topa et al., 2018; Wang & Shi, 2013). The conceptualization of Sargent et al. (2011), which considers four broad categories (exploration of new horizons, search for meaning, contributing in your own way, and time to relax), is able to contemplate the positive and negative aspects, as well as the models proposed by other authors.

In an analysis of this conceptualization, it is observed that the categories “exploring new horizons” and “time to relax” incorporate the main positive aspects of retirement such as new goals, freedom, and rest. Meanwhile, the “search for meaning” category incorporates negative aspects such as loss of identity, resources, and productive capacity, highlighted by studies that considered both dimensions (Antloga et al., 2017; Antunes et al., 2018; Boehs & Silva, 2017; Carvalho et al., 2021; Gettings & Anderson, 2021; Moraes et al., 2019; Ramos et al., 2021). The category “contributing in your own way”, in turn, refers to engaging in productive activities without necessarily a financial return and corroborates dimensions highlighted in the work of Macêdo et al., (2017) and Martins et al., (2014).

In addition to the mentioned groups, a set of studies relating to retirement as a right is included. Although seeing retirement in this manner represents an innovative meaning compared to the dimensions proposed by Sargent et al. (2011), this viewpoint was later cited in a study that emphasizes the lack of this benefit as the absence of freedom during a time of difficulties in resource access (Sargent et al., 2013). Such meanings seem to particularly represent countries with peripheral industrialization, in which many labor and social rights are not consolidated, with retirement being experienced in parallel with continuing work (Costa, 2022; Selig & Valore, 2010; Silva & Helal, 2017). They could also include the population for whom retirement did not represent a voluntary decision but was imposed for health, accident, or even family reasons.

Finally, the emergence of influences on meaning is discussed. This result is not a meaning, but an aspect of the concept of retirement that understands it from a multilevel view, as a phenomenon in which different levels directly influence each other (Szinovacz, 2013, Wang & Shi, 2013). This consideration has been highlighted in several studies and is supported by theories such as the life course perspective, which emphasizes the need to investigate the micro context (such as personality, health, financial situation, social support) to the macro context (such as government policies) to determine meanings (França & Soares, 2009; Kim & Moen, 2002). In relation to the micro context, the notion of resources stands out as individual factors from different sources, which can explain fluctuations in retirement experiences depending on their acquisition and maintenance (Wang & Shi, 2013).

Based on the analysis of the groups found in this scoping review and the theoretical references discussed, it was possible to outline a model for the meanings of retirement, presented in Figure 2. The model was based on the factors proposed by Sargent et al. (2011), which were enriched with the contents of the categories suggested by other studies (Andrade & Torres, 2020; Macêdo et al., 2017; Martins et al., 2014). Furthermore, the meaning of retirement as the acquisition of rights was added, a category that had not yet been included in the previous propositions.

Figure 2
Model of meanings of retirement

Externally to the meanings of retirement, the model presents five other groups of influences. These are individual differences and resources, as well as contextual, labor, and situational factors, that do not directly constitute the meanings, but represent variables that can shape these interpretations. These five groups were defined based on the results found in this review, especially the fourth group of results, related to the meanings of retirement (Aguilera-Velasco et al., 2020; Andrade & Torres, 2020; Grødem & Kitterød, 2021) and based on demonstrated evidences by previous reviews (Amorim & França, 2019; Barbosa et al., 2016; Rue et al., 2022; Topa et al., 2018). The inclusion of influences in the model contributes to the construction of a robust theoretical model, which takes into account the complexity of the phenomenon and facilitates the verification of similarities and differences between the different concepts of the field.

According to these discussions, we believe that the study has fulfilled its proposed objective, answering questions regarding theoretical knowledge and characteristics of studies on the meanings of retirement. In theoretical terms, this synthesis recognized and advanced a model of the meanings of retirement, which until then had been developed for a very specific group of retirees (Sargent, et al., 2011). This review includes results from countries with different characteristics, which guarantees an expansion of the discussion in a more generalist, representative, and complex way. Additionally, the need to identify these meanings and consider their dynamicity based on several factors is reinforced (Andrade & Torres, 2020; Caradec, 2017; França & Vaughan, 2008; Karp, 1989; Ramos et al., 2021). In the end of our study, we present to the scientific community an initial theoretical model that must be tested empirically.

The results impact psychological practices in clinical, organizational or social contexts. Regardless of the context, retirement is a crucial moment of active reflection (Sargent et al., 2013), which generates in people the search for understanding their history, evaluations of meanings, revisions of narratives, and the influence on interpretation processes, as well as reframing life events and circumstances, and reviewing priorities and goals (Amabile, 2019). To be more specific, this data should be used by Human Resources and career guidance professionals, in order to intervene in organizational environments, which present themselves as environments full of experiences of stress and exhaustion, especially for older workers (Sargent et al., 2011).

We emphasize that the design of our study does not allow us to generalize the results or finalize discussions on the subject. Among the limitations, the difficulty in selecting articles stands out, considering the use of different terms to define the construct, which reiterates the complexity of the field (Henkens et al., 2017; Wang & Shi, 2014). Furthermore, selecting only articles from specific languages certainly excluded important contributions on the topic. Finally, we highlight that the fact that the searches resulted numerous articles from South America, especially from Brazil, may indicate a trend in the results, possibly caused by the use of specific descriptors and databases. Such limitations indicate the need for further reviews and analysis to confirm the validity of the results.

Finally, we emphasize the need for continued studies in this area. Methodologically, qualitative studies with varied data collection and analysis techniques, along with alignment between participants and analysis phenomenon, would be appropriate. As postulated by Amabile (2019), the field currently consists of a lot of knowledge about determinants and outcomes of the retirement experience, but deeper questions are still full of gaps. Theoretically, few investigations have considered the dimensions of meanings and their contextual factors, through robust designs with relationships between variables, preferably longitudinal.

To advance the knowledge developed by this review, it would also be important to create measures for the categories of meanings presented. Future studies could be dedicated to this construction, to comparisons based on factors external to the meanings, and to the verification of meanings over time, considering the procedural nature of retirement, which presupposes different experiences throughout life (Sargent et al., 2011). In addition to advancing the model of meanings, relationships with other subjects are necessary, such as decisions (Andrade & Torres, 2020; Topa et al. 2018), interpersonal relationships (Antunes & Moré, 2017), planning (Gettings & Anderson, 2021), changes in identity throughout the career (Amabile, 2019), post-retirement perspectives (Boehs & Silva, 2017), adopted career patterns (Boehs & Silva, 2017), continuity in work (Selig & Valore, 2010), among others. Hence, it is expected to contribute to the understanding of this significant moment, anchoring policies and interventions aimed at the well-being of the lives of adults and elderly people, especially in countries like Brazil.

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Edited by

Editor:

Evandro Morais Peixoto

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  29 July 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  12 Dec 2022
• Reviewed
  03 Aug 2023
• Accepted
  23 Nov 2023