Breeding and management of wild birds in the semi-arid region of Paraíba, Brazil

Criação e manejo de aves silvestres no semiárido da Paraíba, Brasil

Abstract

The breeding of wild birds as pets is directly related to cultural, socioeconomic and decline issues of the species involved. In this perspective, the study surveyed the knowledge of local breeders of captive wild birds, as well as the management practices and commercialization aspects of the animals and the socio-cultural context involved with this activity in the Brazilian state of Paraíba. Data were collected from four informants through semi-structured questionnaires, addressing aspects of captive breeding of wild birds. Three species were recorded: Sporophila angolensis, S. bouvreuil and Sicalis flaveola. The species are kept mainly because of the beauty of their songs and the potential for their use in rinhas (bird fighting), factors also responsible for the commercialization of the species. The aspects involved in maintenance vary among breeders and according to interspecific factors. However, the selection and reproduction of the species are related to behavioural factors (singing ability and potential for rinhas). The data show that the breeding and management of wild birds is a complex activity in a socio-cultural and economic context, with more studies required to understand the dynamics involved in this process including whether or not these forms of management interfere with the genetics of the birds species through the artificial selection process.

Keywords:
ethno-ornithology; local breeders; traditional management; bird-keeping; wild birds

Resumo

A criação de aves silvestres como animais de estimação está diretamente relacionada a questões culturais, socioeconômicas e de declínio das espécies envolvidas. Nessa perspectiva, o estudo levantou o conhecimento de criadores locais de aves silvestres em cativeiro, bem como as práticas de manejo e aspectos de comercialização dos animais e o contexto sociocultural envolvido com esta atividade no estado brasileiro da Paraíba. Os dados foram coletados de quatro informants por meio de questionários semiestruturados, abordando aspectos da criação de aves silvestres em cativeiro. Foram registradas três espécies: Sporophila angolensis, S. bouvreuil e Sicalis flaveola. As espécies são mantidas principalmente pelo canto e pelo potencial para uso em rinhas (brigas de pássaros), fatores támbem responsáveis pela comercialização das espécies. Os aspectos envolvidos na manutenção variam entre criadores e de acordo com fatores interespecíficos. No entanto, a seleção e reprodução das espécies estão relacionadas a fatores comportamentais (capacidade de canto e potencial para rinhas). Os dados mostram que a criação e manejo de aves silvestres é uma atividade complexa num contexto sociocultural e econômico, sendo necessário mais estudos para compreender a dinâmica envolvida neste processo incluindo se estas formas de manejo interferem ou não na genética das espécies de aves através do processo de seleção artificial.

Palavras-chave:
etno-ornitologia; criadores locais; manejo tradicional; avifauna; aves silvestres

1. Introduction

Animals are a main resource for humans, with associations existing throughout their joint evolutionary histories (Alves and Souto, 2011). Among animals, birds stand out for their great species diversity and abundance (Tidemann and Gosler, 2010; Alves et al., 2013a; Gosler, 2017) and the beauty of their songs and plumages. Birds are kept as a status symbol and for entertainment and are among the most desired and trafficked animals worldwide (Tella and Hiraldo, 2014; Dai and Zhang, 2017; Roldán-Clarà et al., 2017; Nijman et al., 2018).

Keeping birds in cages is considered the main stimulus for their capture and illegal and indiscriminate trade, which is one of the main threats to wild birds in the world (Su et al., 2015; Dai and Zhang, 2017; Roldán-Clarà et al., 2017; Nijman et al., 2018). In Brazil, the habit of keeping wild birds in captivity is a widespread practice (Alves et al., 2010, 2013b; Licarião et al., 2013). In many regions, such practice is so culturally important that people use ornamental cages with imitation birds (Alves et al., 2010).

Studies have addressed aspects of trade, breeding and maintenance of wild birds and their implications for species conservation, as well as the legal implications throughout Brazil (Regueira and Bernard, 2012; Licarião et al., 2013; Nascimento et al., 2015; Souto et al., 2017; Oliveira et al., 2018). This emphasizes management aspects from the perspective of capture and maintenance in captivity (feeding, preparation of birds for trade and accommodations) of the species and the implications of this management for conservation.

However, based on different studies (Stevenson and Hesse, 1990; Blancas et al., 2010, 2013; Parra et al., 2010), management typically involves processes of selecting and managing phenotypes desirable to human populations. In this way, wildlife management involves practices that seek to control the reproduction of successive generations, which may or may not result in species domestication (Casas et al., 1996; Zarazúa-Carbajal et al., 2020).

Additionally, it is known that not all species and their variants hold the same symbolic/cultural value, and selection criteria and management are deeply linked to the culture (Breittruck, 2012; Licarião et al., 2013; Tella and Hiraldo, 2014; Su et al., 2015; Gosler, 2017; Roldán-Clarà et al., 2017; Souto et al., 2017; Nijman et al., 2018).

Thus, with the intention to collaborate to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the research is based on SDG 15, which addresses Life on Land. The study aimed to investigate and understand the traditional management of wild birds kept in captivity, as well as the factors that influence the choice of species, considering that the management practices may or may not interfere with the birds’ characteristics, such as the behavioural, physiological, morphological, and genetic ones. In this investigation, we consider that breeders have a broad knowledge of wild birds and that bird management is directed towards the artificial selection of individuals with desirable phenotypic traits with commercial potential.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study site

The municipality of Patos is located in the Sertão Mesoregion (hinterlands) and Alto-Piranhas Depression micro-region, in the semi-arid region of the state of Paraíba, Brazil (see Figure 1). Patos has a territorial area of 473.056 km² and is 301 km from the state capital of João Pessoa. According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 2013) the estimated population in 2017 was 107,790 inhabitants, with a population density of 212.82 inhabitants/km². The climate is classified as BSh semi-arid hot and dry (Köppen: Aw), with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. The economy is based on the shoe industry, the extraction of vegetable oils and the processing of cotton and cereals. In Patos (Paraíba), the trade of wild birds is an old and widespread practice (Soares et al., 2020). One of the largest Brazilian traffickers, who has more than 13 seizures and approximately 9 million reais in fines, lives in the area of this study [personal observation].

Figure 1
Map of the municipality of Patos, Paraíba, Northeast, Brazil. Map: Hyago Keslley.

2.2. Data collection

Data were obtained with semi-structured questionnaires containing questions about the knowledge, use and local management of wild birds (Albuquerque et al., 2014). The interviews addressed the following questions: What species were bred (reproduced) in captivity? How is the management (maintenance and reproduction) of the species in captivity? Why and how are species chosen for breeding? What are the species’ characteristics that influence their use and reproduction in captivity? What are the species characteristics most valued for breeding and trading? Why?

The local breeders were selected using the snowball technique (Albuquerque et al., 2014). Four men were interviewed, representing 100% of the captive bird breeders. The mean age of the breeders was 46 years, and these breeders reported the following professions: taxi driver (n=1), general services assistant (n=1), self-employed (n=1), and retired (n=1). All interviewees reside in urban areas and completed secondary education. Only wild bird keepers who bred (reproduced) the native species in captivity were interviewed and considered informants in the present study. People who reared wild birds but did not “reproduce” their specimens were not considered in the present study.

Before each interview, the study objectives were explained to each local breeder, who was then invited to sign a free and informed consent form. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Paraíba under opinion n. 297/11; title page n. 420134.

The birds cited and used were identified to the species level as follows: 1) with the aid of field guides (Sigrist, 2009) and 2) from the records and photographs taken during the interviews. The scientific nomenclature used in the present study follows the taxonomy of the Brazilian Committee of Ornithological Records (Piacentini et al., 2015).

3. Results

3.1. Bird species

Three species belonging to the order Passeriformes and family Thraupidae were identified: the chestnut-bellied seed finch or curió (Sporophila angolensis Linnaeus, 1766); the copper seedeater or caboclinho (Sporophila bouvreuil Statius Muller, 1776); and the saffron finch or canário-da-terra (Sicalis flaveola Linnaeus, 1766). S. angolensis and S. bouvreuil were bred by two interviewed because of the beauty of their songs and S. flaveola is kept also by two breeders and used in bird fight, locally termed rinhas, The species are bred (“reproduced”) in captivity with the intention of improving their song (S. angolensis and S. bouvreuil) and fighting (S. flaveola) characteristics, according to the intention and the perspective of the breeders. The four breeders stated that they have reared wild birds since their childhood (starting between 12-13 years old).

The breeders know that for the three recorded species, females are distinguished from males by the less striking and duller colour pattern and by the way they ‘lower’ their body, a typical female behaviour that, in the view of the breeders, is the most striking feature for use in distinguishing between individuals and sexes.

3.2. Aspects related to breeding and commercialization

For one species (S. angolensis), the birds originate from a legal breeder, who is registered with and authorized by the System for Control and Monitoring of the Amateur Bird Keeping (Sispass) of the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis – IBAMA) to keep and breed birds in captivity. The three other breeders are unregistered/unauthorized breeders of two species (S. bouvreuil and S. flaveola) that originate from different locations in Brazil. In the case of S. angolensis, because the breeder has authorization for breeding and trade, all specimens are banded and recorded. In the case of S. flaveola, the breeders state that the recorded specimens originated from other states and even countries (Venezuela and Peru). According to the information obtained from the interviews (two breeders), the study location does not have S. flaveola in its natural environment, as it is locally extinct. With the exception of S. angolensis, all specimens of S. bouvreuil and S. flaveola in this study come from the capture and illegal trade of wild birds.

One of the characteristics desired by the breeder is the song. The studied species presented the songs classified as a ‘trill’ and ‘whistle’. The first consists of a fast series of notes that precede the characteristic ‘whistle’ bird song. In the case of S. angolensis, because of the origins (legal), the specimens are sold legally, at a value of R$ 1,000 (USS 178.77), regardless of whether the bird is a good singer. Another determinant is the type of bird, and the number of songs that the S. angolensis specimens know.

For the wild-captured S. bouvreuil and S. flaveola specimens, the selection (singing and fighting, respectively), preparation and breeding of the selected individuals involve several aspects for commercialization of the bird. As an example, newly captured individuals referred to as brabos (angry) have low value, which differs from those individuals already adapted to captive conditions, and under ideal conditions, they are completely ‘acclimated’ in 8 to 10 months after capture.

For S. bouvreuil, the values range from R$ 5,00 (US$ 0.89) for ‘angry’ specimens and R$ 2,000 (USS 357.55) for birds considered expert singers. For S. flaveola, the values of the specimens vary according to the length of time without losing a fight, with this value increasing. However, when the bird is defeated, regardless of the history of fights, the value drops in the same proportion. For the three recorded species, males have greater value than the females, which are sold along with the males. S. bouvreuil females are the exception because they show differences in breeding skills and can be sold separately, albeit at lower prices than males.

3.3. Maintenance and health aspects

The aspects of maintenance and sanitation (food, accommodations, supplementation and medication) vary among breeders and species. In general, all species are fed in the morning with grains (birdseed, proso millet, pearl millet and feed–a nutritional preparation based on the mixture of several foods) (Figure 2a – 2c) throughout life and are supplemented with medications and vitamin complexes in the reproduction and moulting phases (shedding of feathers and beak) (Figure 2d – 2c), stages considered critical by bird breeders because many individuals end up dying due to stress in these stages. The moulting phase can last up to 3 months; however, differences may exist among the specimens.

Figure 2
A – C: Bird feed. D – F: Medications and supplements used in birds.

The cages and site of the enclosures vary according to the characteristics of the animal (recently caught or acclimated), as well as the purpose (singing or fighting), but regardless of the purpose and sex of the specimens, the birds cannot be held in direct visual contact with each other. The birds are kept in an entirely enclosed location, with windows for natural sunlight and ventilation. All specimens are exposed daily to morning sun, which, according to the breeders, improves and/or stimulates the performance of the birds (singing or fighting). The species used for singing (S. angolensis and S. bouvreuil), regardless of whether captive born or wild caught (S. bouvreuil), are kept 6 to 8 months in smaller cages specifically used for ‘taming’ (Figure 3a – 3d). The females are kept in individual cages, all in the same place, which must be separated from the males.

Figure 3
A: Timing cage. B – D: Lodging for stimulating S. angolensis to sing. E – F: Lodging for S. flaveola.

For S. flaveola, newly acquired individuals are all confined in the same environment with abundant feeding and subsequent screening of individuals of interest of both sexes. This confinement is used to determine whether the birds fight even under abundant feeding conditions, which may indicate that they are suitable for use in fighting (Figure 3e – 3f).

After screening, the birds are kept in gaiolões (large cages) in pairs and with plenty of food. The choice of the pairing depends on many behavioural factors between males and females, and usually more than one female specimen is present for each male. The process for preparing the birds for rinhas (fighting) takes approximately 1 year.

3.4. Rinhas (bird fights)

Specimens of S. flaveola of both sexes fight and participate in rinhas. However, the confrontations are directed at males, and females are used to stimulate fighting by their presence. Thus, females do not fight and are only sporadically placed in confrontations to determine the presence of the behaviour for breeding purposes.

Such activities occur weekly in the study area and biweekly in the surrounding regions, in addition to the bird fighting tournaments that occur every 6 months. The ‘fights’ involve individuals of the same size (weight) and canary type; for example, ‘Peruvians’ only fight ‘Peruvians’ and so on. The birds to be fought are placed in specific cages and held as pairs (each pair in 1 cage). The females are released, and when they approach each other, they are separated and placed in a specific location in the fight cage. Next, the males are released, and if they are ‘good’, they begin physical confrontations after visual contact. The dispute is interrupted as soon as one of the canaries begins to ‘grunt’ (specific call) and/or flee the fight.

3.5. Aspects related to bird management (selection and reproduction)

3.5.1. General information

For the three species, only the best specimens (for singing or fighting) are selected for reproduction. All reproductive processes occur only after moulting because, according to the breeders, the birds are weakened due to the replacement of feathers and beaks. After hatching, the chicks were hand fed by the breeders for 5 days with cornmeal and milk. After this period, the females (mothers) fed the chicks. All breeders emphasize that not every good singer (S. angolensis and S. bouvreuil) and fighter (S. flaveola) is a good breeder and vice versa.

3.5.1.1. Sicalis flaveola (Linneaus, 1766) – Saffron finch or canário-da-terra

Fifty-nine individuals (30 males, 20 females and nine chicks) belonging to two local breeders were recorded and kept in captivity, mainly for use in bird fights. The breeders recognize four types of fighting canaries: ‘Peruvian’, ‘Venezuelan’, ‘Southern’ and ‘Crossbred’, and both breeders mentioned differences in the morphological traits (as shown in Table 1) among these types. Notably, not all canary types are good for fights and/or breeding.

Table 1
Types of canaries and descriptions of characteristics from the perspectives of local breeders.

Type of canary	Features	* Tendency to fight	‘Angry’ specimen value	Value of the best specimens
Peruvian	Bright yellow coloration with orange-coloured head; larger body beak and claw sizes than the other types, as well as greater beak hardness than the others.	1/500	R$ 500.00	R$ 4,000.00
Venezuelan	Bright yellow coloration with red head; are smaller than Peruvians but larger than the other types.	1/200	R$ 100.00	R$ 3,000.00
Southern	Considered the smallest and most resistant of the types; Yellow coloration (continuous)** and ‘muddy’ colour, absent in the others.	1/50	R$ 10.00	R$ 2,000.00
Crossbred	Result of crosses between canary types; atypical colour	1/1,000	R$ 10.00	R$ 2,000.00

• (1,00 R$ = 0,16 US$);
• ^*
  Values reported by canary breeders. They are based on the number of specimens purchased/acquired or born, for example, of 500 specimens acquired, 1 presenting a fighting characteristic: aggressiveness, territoriality;
• ^**
  Grey colouration throughout life.

Females display the same characteristic physiological and behavioural patterns as males. They have the same fighting ability, differing in the colour of the feathers, with females being ‘muddy’ (spotted) and yellow and generally do not sing. However, both breeders state that females of the ‘Southern’ type ‘lower’ themselves more, and they also interact better with the males, a factor considered important for fighting because the male fights to defend the female from the male rival; this type also provides better breeders compared to the other types.

For individuals of both sexes, only behaviours involving aggressiveness, dominance and fighting are of interest to breeders of this species. Birds that are not of interest are kept for exchanges and negotiations as well as to test (fight) the birds selected for fighting. All specimens involved in breeding, reproduction and trade originate from nature.

The individuals chosen for reproduction, in general, are always the best in the fight, regardless of the type of canary. When selected as breeders, they are kept away from fights. In the present study, specimens of the ‘Peruvian’ and ‘Southern’ types are bred by crossing with individuals of the same type (pure) as well as with the other types (crossbred). However, the breeders note that, because they are more valuable, ‘Peruvian’ type individuals are the type most often used in reproduction. According to both breeders, approximately 100% of the copulations are successful, with an average of three reproductive cycles per year, with 3 to 4 eggs per female and per cycle. During the reproduction process, breeding pairs do not brood eggs from other specimens (couples), regardless of the crosses in question (pure or crossbred). Both breeders state that females will lay eggs out of the nest and/or break those eggs not from their own brood.

After one year, the males acquire the typical yellow colour and are then tested for their fighting ability. Both breeders emphasize that for any type of canary, the proportion of individuals born in captivity that are prone to fighting is 1/1,000. The two breeders indicated that, regardless of the canary type in question, all individuals born in captivity show less aggressive behaviour compared to wild-caught individuals. This finding can be explained by behaviour, with artificial selection occurring for more phenotypes that are favorable or by the influence of the respective breeder. According to the breeders, more captive birds are singers than fighters (for both sexes) but are easier to breed.

3.5.1.2. Sporophila angolensis (Linneaus, 1766) - Chestnut-bellied seed finch or curió

Sixteen specimens of S. angolensis (4 males, 11 females and 1 chick – sex undetermined) were recorded as belonging to a local breeder who was interviewed and were kept in captivity mainly for the beauty of their songs. All specimens were born in captivity. The specimens of both sexes sing, although the females sing less than males and are used exclusively for reproduction.

The males chosen for reproduction are always birds that tend to sing more than one song. In the case of the females, the lineage (offspring of good singers) influences their selection as breeders in reproduction. Despite the 16 specimens recorded, only four males and five females were used for reproduction, and all were born in captivity.

According to the breeder, after the breeding process, approximately 100% of the copulations prove successful, resulting in an average of three reproductive cycles per year, with an average of three eggs per female and per cycle. Some factors are crucial for success in reproduction, such as humidity. Where the females incubate their eggs should have a relative air humidity above 60%, requiring the use of a humidifier and a frozen water bottle under each cage. Another factor considered important is the isolation of females from males while incubating. Therefore, these birds do not abandon the nest, and for their chicks to be good singers, they cannot be exposed to the singing of any male before 15 days of age. However, after the 15th day, a speaker is used to play a song (usually of a S. angolensis, made famous online) is played at a very low volume to stimulate the chicks to sing.

Unlike S. flaveola, the S. angolensis females have no problems with eggs from other females or from other males. In general, all individuals are born and survive. Between the seventh and 12th day, the birds are banded. The breeder notes that after this period, the bird’s leg has a thickness greater than the band, preventing its placement. After 100 days, regardless of sex (it is not possible to distinguish between males and females), the birds are maintained for 1 year in a specific area in the greenhouse, where inside speakers emit the breeder’s favourite song. All male specimens born in captivity are docile and sing; however, the conditions for the development of a good singer (repeater, no song mistakes) depend greatly on the breeder.

3.5.1.3. Sporophila bouvreuil (Statius Muller, 1776) – Copper seedeater or caboclinho

Nine specimens (four males, two females and three chicks) reared by one informant were kept in captivity mainly due to the beauty of their songs. All specimens were wild caught. Two types of S. bouvreuil are recognized for males: the first shows normal colour, and the second, nicknamed ‘owl’, shows coloration such as that of the female; however, this factor has no influence on the value of the specimens. Individuals of both sexes make ‘trill’ sounds, and only males make ‘whistle’ sounds (three notes).

For S. bouvreuil, the stock of males (4 to 5 specimens) is important for reproduction because females choose individuals with whom to procreate. If a randomly chosen male specimen is placed with the female, the pair will fight, and reproduction does not occur. For the breeder in question, 100% of the copulations are successful, with an average of three reproductive cycles per year. The number of eggs is variable; however, all individuals survive.

One year after hatching, the first moulting occurs for individuals of both sexes. The female acquires a typical coloration and is ready for reproduction; however, the male only acquires definitive colour after the second moulting 6 months later. Nonetheless, the identification of the sexes can be performed starting at 6 months of age because males, even as chicks, make whistling sounds, which does not occur in the females. The breeder also emphasizes that individuals born in captivity tend to sing more (longer amount of time) than individuals captured from nature.

3.5.2. Challenges and implications of bird breeding/management

All wild bird breeders (n = 4) note that the breeding process as well as management and selection for the singing (S. bouvreuil and S. angolensis) as well as for the fighting (S. flaveola) birds, involves many challenges – nutritional, sanitary, animal welfare and legal – in all aspects of the process. In the case of S. angolensis, despite all the parameters involving the legality of the keeping and reproduction of individuals in captivity, the process of choice and successive systematic reproduction of individuals can often result in the crossing of related individuals, which may cause problems in the offspring due to endogamy.

All four breeders report that any external and extreme factors, such as excessive noise or even sudden changes in temperature, result in abandonment of the nest by females of the three species. The four breeders reported that for the females, constant laying (three broods/year, each species, respectively) can result in the formation of shell-less eggs that the females cannot lay, which in most cases eventually results in the death of the female.

For S. bouvreuil and S. flaveola, the breeders report that the main problems are associated with the clandestine/illegal breeding and use of birds. Seizures by the national surveillance agency (IBAMA) to combat the trafficking of wild animals result in the loss of individuals by the breeders and the imposition of a fine; under these conditions, the entire selection process involving the birds is lost.

4. Discussion

All species recorded in our study occur in Brazil (Piacentini et al., 2015). Many species peculiarities (size, prices, availability, rarity and maintenance cost) are involved in the breeding and maintenance of birds in captivity (Breittruck, 2012; Licarião et al., 2013; Tella and Hiraldo, 2014; Su et al., 2015; Dai and Zhang, 2017; Roldán-Clarà et al., 2017; Souto et al., 2017; Oliveira et al., 2018; Nijman et al., 2018; Soares et al., 2020; Silva et al., 2023). The broad and valued song repertoire and the beauty of the species, place Passeriformes among the most commercialized birds in the country (Fernandes-Ferreira et al., 2012; Regueira and Bernard, 2012; Alves et al., 2013b; Nascimento et al., 2015; Souto et al., 2017).

For the three species, the male specimens are more valued and available in the clandestine trade of wild birds, a fact reported in several studies on the acquisition and maintenance of birds in captivity (Licarião et al., 2013; Oliveira et al., 2018), which is also recorded for Patos, Paraíba.

Our data show that the value of the song of Sporophila sp. is the main motivational factor for the breeding and management of birds in captivity, and to reproduce the peculiarities of each species, maintenance is a complex and fundamental factor for proper management.

For S. angolensis, according to the breeder, in addition to the ‘trill’ and ‘whistle’ sounds characteristic of almost all songbirds, this species also has two types of ‘whistle’ sound (5 notes - cabi sound/Paracambi; 7 notes - classic sound) as well as showing a range of variations between the notes of each sound that contribute to diversity in songs (Soares et al., 2020). The specimens that show the ‘classic sound’ type of song are more valuable, as well as those that present a greater number of notes. In addition to the number of notes affecting the value, added value comes from the ability of a bird to repeat these notes. The greater the ability to repeat notes is, the greater the value of the bird.

The process of selection and reproduction (management) of birds involves various peculiarities (maintenance) that vary between species, breeders, and type of use (singing or fighting). From these perspectives, our data present relevant information on the criteria involved in the management of the recorded species. An example is the fact that males and females of S. flaveola stay together during the entire reproductive process, which is different from the process recorded for S. angolensis and S. bouvreuil.

For S. angolensis, the specimens were captive-reared, guided by a selection process in the search for the best songs, which indicates the species may be undergoing methodical incipient artificial selection, as described by Darwin (1868), which is guided and conducted in a systematic way to modify or breed a species according to a predetermined pattern.

The same process was observed for S. flaveola, in which, even though the studied birds have been originally obtained from illegal breeders and wild-caught, it was possible to identify four types of canary (‘Peruvian’, ‘Venezuelan’, ‘Southern’ and ‘Crossbred’). In this case, all types include individuals with or without fighting behaviour. Moreover, for some types with higher economic value, such as ‘Peruvian’, there is a clear preference for undertaking breeding efforts because these birds are more valuable in fights and production of larger egg-laying females.

The canary types found may be associated with five recognized subspecies of Sicalis flaveola: S. f. brasiliensis (Gmelin, 1789), S. f. pelzelni (Sclater, 1872), S. f. flaveola (Linneaus, 1766), S. f. koenigi (Hoy, 1978) and S. f. valida (Bangs & Penard, 1921) (Piacentini et al., 2015). The geographic distributions of the first two subspecies form an area with a possible contact zone between the two taxa in south-eastern Paraná and north-eastern Santa Catarina. Furthermore, S. f. flaveola occurs further north in South America (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana); S. f. valida occurs only in the Andes, between Ecuador and Peru; and S. f. koenigi occurs in the south of South America, in north-western Argentina (Del Hoyo et al., 2014). Silveira and Méndez (1999) show that, in the case of S. flaveola, another important factor is that birds from populations outside Brazil have been illegally imported and deliberately released in different regions in the North and in other parts of the country, which may have led to genetic contamination of the taxa involved.

For S. bouvreuil specimens, aspects related to selection and reproduction, in principle, are associated with several factors. One of them is the wild capture of specimens, which reveal patterns of the selection of individuals, capture methods, and times more favourable for capture, although the breeder claims not to capture (hunt) the birds in question. However, how species are selected and bred due to their song, as well as the peculiarities involving mating, indicate that the birds are under an ex situ management process with recognition of variants (Blancas et al., 2013), which occurs when maintenance of species occurs in captivity without full human control over the selection and reproduction of specimens.

Despite the distinctions between aspects of species maintenance, selection, and reproduction, the species are selected based on behavioural factors (singing and fighting ability), and all breeders reported that specimens that were born in captivity are docile compared to the wild ones. Bartels (2003) shows that, through selective measures, breeders can increase the frequency of desirable traits within an animal population in a few generations.

Price (1984) and Price (2002) reported that breeders select individuals for reproduction to transmit desirable traits; thus, selection occurs before reproduction. This author states that the phenotypic diversification of the population kept in captivity is driven by the valuation of the characteristics desired by the breeder. Another important factor is the population size of the stock of selected birds, which can delimit the gene flow and increase the probability of mating between related individuals, which can consequently reduce genetic variability.

The data show that, for the species selected because of their song (S. angolensis e S. bouvreuil), some factors may contribute to a better adaptation and song learning by the species. These factors include holding the birds in places to stimulate singing, as reported for S. angolensis. Another important factor is that, according to the breeders, specimens that are born in captivity do not need to be subjected to the process of decreasing aggressiveness and increasing tolerance to humans, as they are more docile than wild-caught specimens.

Our data show that, regardless of their purpose, individuals of the species cannot be in direct visual contact. Breeders report that because birds only fight and sing to defend or use their singing to alert another male of their singing and/or territory, when direct visual contact occurs, they adapt to the other’s presence and lose the ability to fight and/or sing.

For Price (2002), the transition from nature to captivity leads to drastic changes in biological and physical environments, which can cause important changes in several behavioural and physiological factors that exert selective pressures and phenotypic development. Providing animals with foods different from those found in nature and with veterinary care, managing reproduction processes and caring for offspring are some of the ways humans are able to influence the genetic and phenotypic variability that characterize populations of captive animals.

Some studies (Price, 1984, 2002; Bartels, 2003; Driscoll et al., 2009; Mehlhorn and Rehkämper, 2013) have shown that contact with humans in captivity is more frequent and therefore increases the birds’ ability to adapt to human presence, which is an important factor determining the physical condition of the specimens. Price (1984) noted that the process of taming is an experiential (learning) phenomenon that occurs during the life of an individual. The acquired or learned tameness is not transmitted genetically to the progeny of an animal.

Specimens born in captivity tend to sing more than their wild counterparts. Some studies (Bartels, 2003; Leitner and Catchpole, 2004, 2007; Takahasi and Okanoya, 2010; Mehlhorn and Rehkämper, 2013; Kagawa et al., 2014) on domesticated species such as Serinus canaria show a marked difference in the songs of the wild and domesticated canaries, with a degree of variability in the singing architecture (greater for wild birds) and the size of the individual repertoire. Other studies (Leitner and Catchpole, 2004, 2007; Belzner et al., 2009; Takahasi and Okanoya, 2010; Kagawa et al., 2014) reported that the size of the repertoire varies with age, and as the birds age, they add more syllables/notes to the songs.

With respect to the use of S. flaveola in bird fights, recent studies (Alves et al., 2010; Fernandes-Ferreira et al., 2012; Souto et al., 2017; Oliveira et al., 2018; Soares et al., 2020) have demonstrated the use of wild birds in rinhas in Northeast Brazil. The results report that, in addition to S. flaveola, Paroaria dominicana (Linnaeus, 1758) and S. albogularis (Spix, 1825) are also used for the rinhas and that many animals are mutilated and die as a result of the fights. The breeders say that because both sexes are selected for fighting, they end up fighting each other; therefore, selection of the right female is a determining factor that directly influences the behaviour of the canary at the time of the fight. Another important factor is the organization of matches by types of canary. For example, ‘Peruvian’ canaries are larger, and their larger body size offers great advantage in fights. Therefore, placing them in physical confrontations with other types of canaries with smaller body sizes would give them a greater chance of success. Alves et al. (2010) argue that the dominant and aggressive character of the species mentioned is the main characteristic of specimens destined to fight and that, because it is an illegal activity, many breeders will deny participation in such activities when asked.

The cultural valuation involving bird fights and the use of registered species are so remarkable in the semi-arid region of Paraíba State (Alves et al., 2010; Licarião et al., 2013; Oliveira et al., 2018; Soares et al., 2020), as well as in the study area, that the breeders bred the species to improve their song skills (S. angolensis and S. bouveril) and fighting performance (S. flaveola). This directly implies higher values in the market and trade because better singer and fighter birds are also more valued.

It is worth mentioning that to perform the management (phenotypically) of a species in captivity, local breeders need a wide knowledge of the habits, behaviour, desirable reproductive parameters of the managed species, as well as the abiotic adaptations and processes to be carried out in captivity so that they will be successful in what they seek to improve (Blancas et al., 2013; Solís and Casas, 2019).

Given this situation, the difficulties involved in the breeding process show that the nature of the activity is not simple. According to Tella and Hiraldo (2014), when regulated, the captive breeding of wild birds can reduce the impacts on wild populations, and when species are threatened with extinction, reproduction in captivity becomes an important conservation tool (Black, 1991; Tella and Hiraldo, 2014).

Under those conditions, the study of animal resource management is important because it allows the analysis of the traditional knowledge and techniques of breeders that is reflected in the different forms of management (Blancas et al., 2010, 2013). These practices resulted from years of experiences (individual and shared) of each breeder. Thus, the corpus (knowledge) and the set of praxis (practices) that permeate the rearing and management (phenotypic) of wild birds provide important information acquired through technical, cultural and biological experiences (Blancas et al., 2010, 2013; Solís and Casas, 2019; Zarazúa-Carbajal et al., 2020).

Concluded, the diversity of information allows us to state that for the three populations of recorded species, breeding and management occur in different ways. The data presented draw attention for further research investigating in this study support the statement that the limitations of captivity and the imposition of breeders in the selection of species for reproduction likely can affect the genetic variability of the species. In the case of S. angolensis, the fact that related individuals are crossed aggravates the situation because, in addition to reducing genetic diversity, the proportion of deleterious gene expression may increase. For S. flaveola, the five subspecies demonstrate the need for studies to deepen the knowledge about the subspecies used, as well as the results of captive breeding, as genetic variability may increase from crosses between subspecies. In this perspective, future research is recommended to thoroughly verify variables resulting from the specimens of the populations managed by the informants. Overall, our results draw attention for further research investigating which the implications of the traditional management for wild birds, as well as, how the limitations of captivity and the imposition of breeders in the selection of species for reproduction can affect the genetic variability of species keep in captivity.

Acknowledgements

To local breeders for their kindness and willingness to collaborate with this research. The Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) for providing logistical support through a scholarship awarded to the first author of this manuscript. The Postgraduate Program in Development and Environment at the Federal University of Paraíba in João Pessoa, Brazil, for the intectual colaboration. The Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul in Campo Grande, Brazil, for their financial support.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  22 Nov 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  05 Apr 2024
• Accepted
  14 Sept 2024