Microbialitic deposits of the Yacoraite Formation, NW Argentina: distribution, environments, paleoecology, and economic implications

Abstract

The Yacoraite Formation (NW Argentina) displays important microbialitic deposits of varied features throughout its six sub-basins. With the discovery of important microbialitic hydrocarbon reservoirs and the interest in lacustrine systems due to recent hydrocarbon finds in the pre-salt Cretaceous series of the South Atlantic, the importance of these organo-sedimentary structures has increased considerably. Because of this, in the past decade, numerous works in Yacoraite Formation have focused on its microbialites. In this study, we provide an updated summary of the existing background and state of knowledge of the microbialites in the Yacoraite Formation, which occupy different stratigraphic positions in diverse sub-basins separated by several kilometers. Due to this, these structures have developed under diverse conditions, giving rise to a great variety of structures and morphologies, useful as reliable and high-resolution proxies for paleoenvironmental studies and to discuss important ecological paradigms. In addition, microbialites of Yacoraite Formation show promising petrophysical conditions to be evaluated as reservoir rocks. Based on the large number of deposits mentioned throughout this work, and the morphological and structural variety of their microbialites, we can highlight Yacoraite Formation as one of the most important microbialite-bearing units in Argentina and South America.

KEYWORDS:
microbialites; Maastrichtian; Danian; reservoir rock; NW Argentina

INTRODUCTION

The Yacoraite Formation (Maastrichtian-Danian) (Turner 1959) is one of the units of the Salta Group rift basin (Marquillas and Salfity 1989, Salfity and Marquillas 1994) (Fig. 1). Due to its extension and mixed carbonate/siliciclastic nature, this formation is considered the most characteristic of the Balbuena Subgroup (Moreno 1970), the middle unit of the Salta Group. Besides, the Yacoraite Formation exhibits a remarkable economic interest for the region, due to its role as a hydrocarbon source rock and reservoir in Northwest Argentina (e.g., Boll and Hernández 1985; Boll 1991, Cesaretti et al. 2000, Grosso et al. 2013).

The type section of this formation is located at the Yacoraite ravine, south of the Uquía station, which is the western tributary of the Grande River in the Humahuaca ravine. The name Yacoraite was used by Groeber (1952) to describe the set of sediments under the designation of Calcareous-Dolomitic Horizon, a name given by Bonarelli (1913) to the Vitiacua limestones (Mather 1922) and later erroneously extended to the whole area of Salta and Jujuy (Leanza 1969).

The paleontological record of the Yacoraite Formation is diverse and made up of body and trace fossils. Regarding the corporeous fossils, ostracods, gastropods, bivalves, foraminifera, and vertebrates, such as fishes and crocodiles, have been found (Cónsole-Gonella et al. 2012, and references therein). Among the trace fossils, the vertebrate tracks are one of the most well-known worldwide since 1970s (e.g., Alonso 1980, Alonso and Marquillas 1986, Díaz-Martínez et al. 2016, 2018, Cónsole-Gonella et al. 2017, 2021, de Valais and Cónsole-Gonella 2019). In addition, the unit exhibits an interesting and diverse record of microbialites (Marquillas et al. 2005, Cónsole-Gonella et al. 2009, 2012, 2017, de Valais and Cónsole-Gonella 2019, and references therein).

Microbialites are the result of the interaction between benthic and detrital microbial communities and/or chemical sediments, constituting an excellent example of organo-sedimentary structures in marine, coastal, or freshwater environments (e.g., Burne and Moore 1987, Riding 2008). Based on their internal structure, they can be grouped into five categories:

• stromatolites, when microbialites show a laminated internal structure and grow attached to the substrate;

• oncolites, when microbialites show a laminated internal structure developing concentrically around a core;

• thrombolites, when there is no internal laminated pattern and instead agglomerations or thrombi are formed;

• dendrolites, when microbialites show an internal structure with a dendritic or branched growth pattern;

• leiolites, whose internal structure is composed of fine grains, lacking textural arrangement (e.g., Burne and Moore 1987, Riding 2011).

The knowledge about the microbialites of the Yacoraite Formation dates back to XVIII century, long before this unit was defined by Turner (1959). D’Orbigny (1842) reported in the Miraflores syncline area (Potosí, Bolivia) the existence of a marine calcareous supposedly to be Mesozoic in age, later defined as Triassic due to its lithostratigraphic similarity with the European Muschelkalk (central and western Europe). In this unit, a type of stromatolitic structure originally named calcaire ondullé was described, which would become one of the most distinctive elements for correlation in this formation.

Brackebusch (1883, 1891) investigated the correlation of these Argentinian Mesozoic beds, which are included in a sequence mainly made of red sandstones, calcareous sandstones, and limestones; furthermore, based on comparisons with homologous fauna of the Bahia Group in Brazil, this author proposed a Cretaceous age for them. These strata were designated as “Petroliferous Formation” and later as “Salta System.” This proposal was supported by Steinmann et al. (1904), Steinmann (1906), and Keidel (1910), who named the Bolivian post-Paleozoic series “Arenisca de Puca” or “Areniscas Rojas” (Pucasandstein) and was considered correlative with the “Petrolifera Formation” in northwestern Argentina. These authors mentioned the domic stromatolites, named as Pucalithus (red rock in Quechua language), and considered equivalent to the calcaire ondulée of D’Orbigny, standing out for their abundance, intense red color and their “mamelonar” surface (for further details, see Cónsole-Gonella et al. 2012).

Later, Bonarelli (1913) suggested an alternative hypothesis and proposed the names “Lower Sandstones” and “Dolomitic Calcareous” for these units. Bonarelli (1921) and Cossman (1925) suggested that the “Lower Sandstones” would correspond to the Permo-Triassic and the “Dolomitic Calcareous” to the Triassic. Despite not coinciding stratigraphically, Bonarelli (1927) accepted the presence of Pucalithus and called them as “peculiar” and “problematic fossils.”

Between 1980 and early 2000s, the presence of microbialites in the Yacoraite Formation was discussed in several contributions, doctoral theses, and conference papers (e.g., Palma 1984, Marquillas 1984, 1985, Marquillas and Salfity 1989, 1994, Marquillas et al. 2003, 2005, 2007, Cónsole-Gonella 2011, Cónsole-Gonella et al. 2009, 2012, 2017). However, those were mostly limited to brief mentions or descriptions within a regional paleoenvironmental and sedimentological context (see Cónsole-Gonella et al. 2012, Roemers-Oliveira et al. 2015).

In recent years, with the discovery of important hydrocarbon reservoirs in microbialitic levels, the study of these organo-sedimentary structures has gained great importance (e.g., Grotzinger and Al-Rawahi 2014, Muniz and Bosence 2015). A good example of these systems is the Brazilian pre-salt, with important reservoirs in mostly or partially (according to different interpretations) microbialitic and bioclastic carbonate facies, deposited in lacustrine to shallow marine environments during the Sag phase (e.g., Rangel and Carminatti 2000, Thompson et al. 2015, Abelha and Petersohn 2018). However, due to the limited subsurface data, reservoir distribution, and heterogeneities, the study of these systems must be complemented by analogues.

Because of its deposition during the sag phase of the Salta rift, microbialites and carbonatic facies of Yacoraite Formation attracted geoscientists attention as an important tool for the study of Brazilian pre-salt. However, the great variety in the organo-sedimentary facies of this formation limits generalization at different scales of work (Rangel and Carminatti 2000, Durieux and Brown 2007, Romero-Sarmiento et al. 2019, Gomes et al. 2020, Ruiz-Monroy 2021). Numerous works were focused on the study and understanding of microbialitic systems of Yacoraite Formation from a stratigraphic, sedimentary, paleoenvironmental, paleobiological/paleontological, and petrophysical point of view (e.g., Hamon et al. 2012, Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas 2014, Villafañe 2016, Bunevich et al. 2017, Cónsole-Gonella et al. 2017, Ruiz et al. 2018, de Valais and Cónsole-Gonella 2019, Deschamps et al. 2020, Gomes et al. 2020, Villafañe et al. 2021, Granier and Lapointe 2022, Tomás et al. 2022).

The aim of this study was to provide an updated summary of the current background and state of knowledge of the microbialites in the Yacoraite Formation, northwestern Argentina, published during the past decades.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The Salta Group records the sedimentary accumulation of a continental rift basin developed from Early Cretaceous to Eocene time (e.g., Viramonte et al. 1984, Salfity and Marquillas 1994, Marquillas et al. 2005). Its origin and evolution are linked to a regional extensional context in northwestern Argentina (Marquillas et al. 2011). The deposits of this group are accumulated in six sub-basins, which surround the Salta-Jujuy high, namely, Tres Cruces, Lomas de Olmedo, Metán, Alemanía (Reyes 1972, Salfity 1982), El Rey (Salfity 1980), and Sey (Schwab 1984) (Fig. 1).

Figure 1
Location of the main sub-basins: TC (Tres Cruces), LO (Lomas de Olmedo), A (Alemanía), M (Metán), R (Rey), and S (Sey), and the isopach map of the Yacoraite Formation. Thicknesses are shown in hundreds of meters. The numbers correspond to different localities in which the authors mentioned the presence of microbialitic beds: I: Maimará, ll: Juella, lll: Alfarcito, IV: Cabra Corral, V: Amblayo. The references showing the microbialite descriptions and interpretations are summarized in Table 1. Modified from Marquillas et al. (2005) and Díaz-Martínez et al. (2018). In addition, a general column with the (litho)stratigraphy of the Yacoraite Formation and its divisions into members is shown.

From bottom to top, the Salta Group is subdivided into three subgroups:

• Pirgua Subgroup (Upper Barremian-Upper Campanian) corresponding to the syn-rift stage (Valencio et al. 1977);

• Balbuena Subgroup (Upper Cretaceous-Lower Paleocene) corresponding to the early post-rift stage (Moreno 1970);

• Santa Bárbara Subgroup (Paleocene-middle Eocene) corresponding to the late post-rift stage (Del Papa et al. 2010).

The basin was developed entirely on Precambrian and Paleozoic basement, and the different formations of Salta Group rest either on Pampean rocks or on the Lower Paleozoic formations of northern Argentina (Aceñolaza and Toselli 1981).

The Yacoraite Formation belongs to the Balbuena Subgroup (Upper Cretaceous-lower Paleocene) and was deposited during the initial stage of thermal subsidence of the Salta Group (Marquillas et al. 2005). It is a succession widely exposed in the provinces of Salta, Jujuy, and northern Tucumán (Marquillas et al. 2005) (Fig. 2). It is composed of dominantly calcareous deposits (partly dolomitic) organized in tabular strata, with intercalations of pelites and sandstones, as well as tuffs and vulcanites (Marquillas and Salfity 1994). Since Yacoraite Formation has a Maastrichtian-Danian age (Marquillas 1985), the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary occurred during its accumulation (Marquillas et al. 2005).

Figure 2
NW-SE outcrop view of the Yacoraite Formation (marked with a blue dotted line), yellow to whitish dominated levels, in the locality of Maimará, Jujuy (Tres Cruces sub-basin).

Yacoraite Basin has been defined as a restricted, shallow, and extensive carbonate intracontinental basin (epicontinental sea), far from the direct and permanent influences of the open sea (Marquillas 1985). Sedimentary facies indicate shallow shoreface conditions alternating with sublittoral deposits. Dominance of wave structures, both fair and stormy weather, suggests a wave-dominated regime with subordinate tidal influence (Marquillas 1985, Marquillas et al. 2005, 2007).

Stratigraphy of Yacoraite Formation

Based on sequence stratigraphy data, the Balbuena Supersequence contains the Lecho and Yacoraite Formations and records sedimentation spanning from the end of the Cretaceous to the beginning of the Paleogene (Hernández et al. 1999). The deposits belonging to the Balbuena Supersequence can be subdivided into four sequences of third order, from bottom to top: Balbuena I, Balbuena II, Balbuena III, and Balbuena IV (Hernández et al. 1999).

The Balbuena I Sequence is predominantly composed of siliciclastic facies deposited in an eolian system (Hernández et al. 1999). The Balbuena II Sequence is divided into two sections: the basal one is made up of calcareous deposits interbedded with tractive clastics and pelites, deposited in a lacustrine environment; and the upper one is made up of predominate clastic fluvial deposits (Hernández et al. 1999). The Balbuena III Sequence displays pelites interbedded with very fine sandstones in the central part of the basin and fluvial conglomerates in the border zones (Hernández et al. 1999). Lastly, the Balbuena IV Sequence is composed of microbialites, marls, siltstones, argillites, arkosic, and carbonate quartzite sandstones in the central part of the basin, whereas in the marginal regions, quartz-feldspathic sandstones, arkosic, and conglomerate sandstones crop out (Hernández et al. 1999, Bunevich et al. 2017).

From a genetic and lithostratigraphic point of view, the Yacoraite Formation, according to changes in the depositional environment, has been subdivided into four members (Marquillas 1986, Marquillas and Salfity 1989, Marquillas et al. 2003, 2005, 2007), from base to top:

• Caliza Amblayo Member: It is the basal member of Yacoraite Formation, with an average thickness of 100 m. It displays a calcareous-dolomitic composition, formed by oolitic and intraclastic grainstones, oointraclastic packstones, fine calcareous sandstones, and stromatolitic beds. It suggests a deposition dominated by significant energy changes. Intertidal activity under stable weather conditions and subordinate stormy weather are recorded in addition to shoals or shoreface sands (Marquillas et al. 2005, 2007, Moreno and Marquillas 2009);

• Güemes Member: It is about 20 m thick and shows bioturbation surfaces. It is composed of bioclastic wackestones, mudstones, siltstones, and graywackes. Flows of different energy and density are suggested to their deposition, indicating water mixing, storm action, and perhaps some continental influence (Marquillas et al. 2005, 2007);

• Alemanía Member: It represents a large part of the upper section of the formation, approximately 70 m thick. It is composed of a thin heterolithic succession of green and black shale, micritic, intraclastic and oolitic limestones, sandy marls, and siltstones, with oolitic grainstones strata and/or stromatolitic boundstones in the upper part. Deposition may have been controlled by the alternation of traction and sedimentation processes in an environment mainly regulated by fairweather waves, where the observed stratigraphic cyclicity seems to respond to climatic variations (Marquillas et al. 2005, Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas 2014);

• Juramento Member: This member is only a few meters thick, recognized in the upper part of the succession. It is mainly composed of domic stromatolites, black and gray shales, marls, oolitic limestones, bioclastic limestones, and sporadic traces of gypsum and anhydrite. It suggests mainly a high intertidal environment and a locally extended tidal flat, alternating with low-energy shallow subtidal sectors. In addition, Juramento member shows an important control by fairweather waves (Marquillas et al. 2005, 2007, Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas 2014).

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF MICROBIALITIC DEPOSITS

The microbialites of Yacoraite Formation have a wide regional distribution, linked to different sub-basins and sedimentary settings in different stratigraphic positions along the unit. However, not all sub-basins exhibit the same degree of knowledge on microbialitic records. Microbialites were largely described from the Tres Cruces and Metán sub-basins, while reports are limited to other sub-basins, such as Sey or Lomas de Olmedo (Gómez-Omil 1982) (Table 1, Fig. 1).

Table 1
Microbialitic deposits of the Yacoraite Formation grouped with respect to the sub-basin, locality/region, and stratigraphic position^*.

Main microbialite papers in the Yacoraite Formation
Sub-basin	Region/locality	Stratigraphic position/age	Paleoenvironment	Authors
Tres Cruces	Maimará (I)	Maastrichtian, in a stratigraphic position close to the K-Pg boundary.	Paleoenvironment that varied from lower intertidal to shallow subtidal, close to the coastline, partially restricted and affected by hydrodynamic action.	Cónsole-Gonella and Aceñolaza (2009)
				Cónsole-Gonella (2011)
				Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2012)
				Villafañe (2016)
				Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2017)
				Villafañe et al. (2021)
				Frías-Saba et al. (2021)
	Juella (II)	Upper Maastrichtian.	Shallow and brackish marine environment, near the coast or sporadically emerged areas.	Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2009)
				Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2012)
	Alfarcito (III)	Not specified.	Stromatolitic facies correspond to an intertidal environment, formed in the photic zone, less than 10 m deep.	Cónsole-Gonella (2011)
	Not specified	Not specified.	Marine environment with higher clastic input, especially at the marginal areas.	Marquillas et al. (2007)
	Not specified	Upper part of Balbuena Supersequence.	Not specified	Terra et al. (2015)
	Not specified	Not specified.	Shallow marine environment.	Ruiz et al. (2018)
Metán	Cabra Corral dam (IV)	Balbuena Supersequence.	Lacustrine environment, whose base level is influenced by relative changes in sea level.	Gabaglia et al. (2011)
		Balbuena III sequence.	Closed lacustrine environment.	Roemers-Oliveira et al. (2015)
		Balbuena IV sequence.	Lacustrine with fluctuating climatic conditions and increasing aridity.	Bunevich et al. (2017)
		Upper Yacoraite Formation.	Lacustrine, in shore line positions.	Gomes et al. (2020)
		Juramento Member.	Shallow, stressed marine environment with high salinity, represented by intertidal and tidal flat deposits.	Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas (2014)
	Not specified	Not specified.	Marine conditions with periods of subaerial exposure.	Marquillas et al. (2007)
	Not specified	Not specified.	Shallow marine environment.	Ruiz et al. (2018)
Metán-Alemanía	Not specified	Upper part of Balbuena Supersequence.	Lacustrine environment with high siliciclastic supply in humid periods.	Terra et al. (2015)
	Not specified	Balbuena Supersequence	High-energy littoral to supralittoral environments.	Deschamps et al. (2020)
	Not specified	Upper Yacoraite Formation	Shallow carbonated marine environment.	Marquillas et al. (2005)
Alemanía	Different localities	Upper Yacoraite Formation	Lacustrine, in shore line positions.	Gomes et al. (2020)
	Amblayo (V)	Caliza Amblayo Member	Shallow intertidal paleoenvironment with alkaline pH, temperatures between 20° C and 40°C, good light and high salinity.	Quiroga (2021)
	Not specified	Not specified	Shallow marine environment.	Ruiz et al. (2018)
Sey	Not specified	Not specified	Marine environment with higher clastic input, especially at the marginal areas.	Marquillas et al. (2007)
Lomas de Olmedo	Not specified	Upper part of Balbuena Supersequence	Lacustrine environment with marine influence.	Terra et al. (2015)
	Not specified	Not specified	Lacustrine environment with low contribution of siliciclastic sediment and important carbonate participation.	Gómez-Omil (1982)
El Rey	Not specified	Balbuena Supersequence	Not specified	Deschamps et al. (2020)

• ^*
  The numbers (I–V) correspond to the different localities in Fig. 1 where the authors mentioned above found microbialitic deposits.

Along the northern area of the Yacoraite Basin, mainly at the Tres Cruces sub-basin, there are several microbialitic deposits. As stated before, Steinmann et al. (1904) correlated the Cretaceous strata in Tres Cruces area with the analogous Puca Group in Bolivia, based on the domal stromatolite Pucalithus. More than a century later, Cónsole-Gonella and Aceñolaza (2009) and Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2009) described domal stromatolites in Maimará and Juella localities of the Jujuy Province. Also, Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2012) presented a synthesis of the paleontological knowledge from the Yacoraite Formation (Maastrichtian-Danian) in these localities.

Villafañe (2016) proposed the usefulness of microbialites from the Yacoraite Formation in the Maimará section as a tool for high-resolution paleoenvironmental studies. Later, Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2017) presented a complete paleoenvironmental reconstruction, showing the ichnofacies implications describing the presence of five stromatolitic facies, some of them showing a remarkable degree of preservation. On the contrary, Villafañe et al. (2021) studied this series and determined the relationship between hydrodynamic energy and these organo-sedimentary structures, defining seven stromatolitic beds in this locality. Finally, at the same locality, Frías-Saba et al. (2021) described the influence of bacterial communities, sediment input, and CO₃ saturation of waters on the development of stromatolite microfabrics from Yacoraite Formation (for a detailed stratigraphic column with the position of microbialites, see Villafañe et al. 2021).

Regarding the K-Pg boundary, Sial et al. (2001) identified it in Maimará locality, although unfortunately its position was not clearly indicated in the stratigraphic section. On the contrary, the overlying Tunal Formation was dated as Danian based on palynomorphs (Quattrocchio et al. 2000). Thus, the stromatolitic beds in the Yacoraite Formation are interpreted as Maastrichtian in age and probably stratigraphically close to the K-Pg boundary.

Similar to the latter sub-basin, the Metán sub-basin shows important microbialitic deposits within its stratigraphic record. Although this sub-basin is considered a single one with the Alemanía sub-basin (Metán-Alemanía sub-basin) by some authors (Pedrinha et al. 2015), most of the reports correspond to the Cabra Corral dam area, Coronel Moldes District (Salta Province, Argentina), which indeed belongs to the Metán sub-basin (Table 1, Fig. 1).

Gabaglia et al. (2011) presented a cyclo-stratigraphic and paleoclimatic study of the Balbuena Supersequence in the Cabra Corral dam area, highlighting the occurrence of several microbialitic intervals varying from centimetric to metric in thickness. Subsequently, one of the first studies focused solely on these organo-sedimentary structures in this area is presented by Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas (2014), who reported several microbialitic beds in the Amblayo, Alemanía, and Juramento members, in the Bahía Viñuales section. However, the authors focused on the stromatolites of the Juramento member and their interaction with metazoans.

Surrounding Cabra Corral dam, Roemers-Oliveira et al. (2015) studied several outcrops belonging to the Balbuena III Sequence (Maastrichtian/Danian), displaying two or more stromatolitic levels giving rise to a detailed paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Subsequently, in the same region, Bunevich et al. (2017) defined seven organo-sedimentary facies based on their intrabioarchitecture from the Balbuena IV sequence (Danian).

Gomes et al. (2020) carried out a paleoenvironmental study of the lacustrine deposits belonging to the upper part of the Yacoraite Formation in different sectors of the Metán and Alemanía sub-basins, defining four microbialitic facies based on mega-, macro-, meso-, and microstructural characteristics. Quiroga (2021) described and interpreted the presence of stromatolitic structures belonging to the Amblayo Limestone member (Alemanía sub-basin), cropping out near the Amblayo town (San Carlos, Salta).

On the contrary, some authors have focused their work on different sub-basins, looking for a correlation among them (Table 1). In Sey, Metán, and Tres Cruces sub-basins, Marquillas et al. (2007) mentioned the presence of stromatolites related to carbonate facies, which they used for isotopic studies (C and O isotopes) at a regional level. In addition, Marquillas et al. (2005) described stromatolitic boundstones associated with shales, mudstones, and grainstones in the upper part of the Yacoraite Formation within Metán and Alemanía sub-basins. Terra et al. (2015) studied the Yacoraite Formation in the Lomas de Olmedo, Metán-Alemanía, and Tres Cruces sub-basins as an analog for Phanerozoic lacustrine microbialitic reservoirs, as well as described the presence of microbialitic levels positioned in the upper part of the Balbuena Supersequence. Furthermore, in Lomas de Olmedo sub-basin, stromatolitic levels with vertically stacked hemispheroids (SH) and laterally linked hemispheroids (LLH) mesostructures (sensu Logan et al. 1964) were reported in association with shales and mudstones by Gómez-Omil (1982). Ruiz et al. (2018) study biomarkers to differentiate carbonate formation between marine, lacustrine, and terrestrial depositional environments. In this work, the presence of microbialitic levels in the Tres Cruces, Metán, and Alemanía sub-basins is mentioned. Finally, Deschamps et al. (2020) studied the dynamics of lacustrine sedimentary systems in the four sequences of the Yacoraite Formation, in the sub-basins of Metán, Alemanía, and El Rey. Throughout their work, they highlighted the presence of diverse microbialitic levels, mainly of the stromatolitic type, associated with diverse depositional systems.

TYPES OF MICROBIALITES AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

Microbialites are the sedimentary products of the dynamic interaction between intrinsic (producing microorganisms) and extrinsic factors (environmental parameters) of the environment throughout their growth (Grotzinger and Knoll 1999, Riding 2008, Dupraz et al. 2011). If during their development the intrinsic or extrinsic factors vary, changes in their internal structure occur, providing an excellent tool for environmental interpretations (Dupraz et al. 2006, Mercedes-Martín et al. 2014, Suosaari et al. 2016).

As mentioned before, sediments belonging to the Yacoraite Formation were deposited in an epicontinental sea after the Early Cretaceous rifting and represent the last marine input during that period (Marquillas et al. 2005). However, given the size of the basin, the distance between the studied localities, and the diverse stratigraphic positions in which the microbialites occur, it is likely that the environmental conditions would not have been homogeneous, resulting in a great variety of organo-sedimentary structures.

In general terms, Hamon et al. (2012) suggested that microbialites of Yacoraite Formation can be classified according to their internal structure (mesostructure), coupled with the particular environmental conditions, into six types:

• oncoidal rudstone, observed on the most proximal part of the sedimentary system and interpreted as tidal flat deposits;

• planar-laminated stromatolites, related to proximal tidal flats and in restricted lagoon;

• “mustach-like” stromatolites formed by wavy internal laminations, in tidal flat environments;

• isolated nodular stromatolitic domes, interpreted as lagoon to tidal flat deposits;

• coalescent nodular to bulbous stromatolites, interpreted as lagoon to restricted flat deposits;

• branching or tubular stromatolites, interpreted as high-energy environment deposits (shoal related).

Hamon et al. (2012) provided an important background on the relationship between microbialites of the Yacoraite Formation and their growth environment. However, in the past 10 years, new deposits have been reported and used as a high-resolution proxy for paleoenvironmental reconstructions. These authors seek to characterize in detail the dynamic interaction between microbialites and environmental parameters in specific localities, mainly from the Tres Cruces and Metán-Alemanía sub-basin, as detailed below.

Microbialites in Tres Cruces sub-basin

Throughout the sedimentary succession of the Tres Cruces sub-basin (Maastrichtian), several microbialitic levels have been reported. All of them are Maastrichtian in age.

As mentioned before, Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2012) reported Pucalithus-type domic stromatolites, both in Maimará and Juella localities, characterized by reddish color and “mamelonar” external structure (Fig. 3A). Although the authors have not studied their internal structure, they suggested that these domes developed in a epicontinental environment, under hydrodynamic stress and with important salinity fluctuations.

Figure 3
Microbialites of different morphologies observed throughout the geological record of the Yacoraite Formation. (A) Pucalithus domic stromatolites reported by Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2012) in Maimará, Jujuy (Tres Cruces sub-basin). (B) Cerebroid stromatolitic levels, preserved in three dimensions, reported by Villafañe et al. (2021) in Maimará, Jujuy (Tres Cruces sub-basin). (C) Stromatolites with columnar internal structure (SH) reported by Roemers-Oliveira et al. (2015) at Vapumas outcrop (Balbuena III Sequence), Salta (Metán sub-basin). (D) Domic stromatolites reported by Bunevich et al. (2017) in Cabra Corral dam (Sequência Balbuena IV), Salta (Metán sub-basin). (E) Cerebroid stromatolitic levels (plan view) reported by Roemers-Oliveira et al. (2015) at Vapumas outcrop (Balbuena III Sequence), Salta (Metán sub-basin). (F) Coarse-grained agglutinating microlumpy type stromatolites, Bunevich et al. (2017) in Cabra Corral dam (Sequência Balbuena IV), Salta (Metán sub-basin).

Based on a more focused study on these organo-sedimentary structures in the Maimará locality, Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2017) described a sedimentary section with five microbialitic levels (from bottom to top):

• Stromatolites with a mat-like structure extending over large areas, and less frequently hemispheroidal domes with an average height of 17 cm, variably spaced (types LLH-S and LLH-C, sensu Logan et al. 1964);

• Stromatolitic domes with an LLH-S structure (sensu Logan et al. 1964), better developed than in the first level, with an average height of 40 cm;

• Mat-like stromatolites with a laminated and homogeneous internal structure and height from 5 to 35 cm;

• Oblate to semicircular stromatolites, with an SS-I structure (sensu Logan et al. 1964) and a maximum thickness of 43 cm. In a transverse section view, some stromatolites show lamination in two directions around a micritic nucleus;

• Semicircular to semi-oval stromatolites with an LLH-C structure (sensu Logan et al. 1964).

The set forms a “stromatolite reef” very similar to the one observed by Logan (1961). Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2017) suggested that these levels were in association with a carbonate lagoon shoreline deposit, in a subtidal-lower intertidal zone of moderate/high energy under wave and tide action. Each level represents an environmental stage where the hydrodynamic conditions and the accommodation space (depth) have conditioned the growth of these organo-sedimentary structures.

In the same section, Villafañe et al. (2021) made a high-resolution paleonvironmental study, focusing on one three-dimensionally exposed stromatolitic level (Fig. 3B). These authors described domic structures organized in clusters (Fig. 4A) with a laminated columnar internal structure proposing a classification for the various erosional structures scouring observed at the outcrop. Clusters are limited by the first-order channels, usually developed perpendicular to the coastline with a clear hydraulic tendency, suggesting the transport of tidal water and/or stream water through them (Figs. 4B and 4C). On the contrary, water dissipation after runoff occurs in the second-order channels, located inside the clusters (Fig. 4C). Finally, the hydrodynamic energy also influenced the internal structure of the stromatolites, where the third-order channels, separating the columns from each other, are the result of differential erosive effects during runoff of water truncating the microbial mats in vivo (Fig. 4C). Based on the characterization of hydrodynamic and bathymetric parameters, they suggested that these stromatolites developed in a lower intertidal (ca. 40 cm depth) to shallow subtidal (> 70 cm depth) paleoenvironment, close to the coastline, partially restricted and affected by hydrodynamic action.

Figure 4
Stromatolitic level MNE5 described in the locality of Maimará (Tres Cruces sub-basin). (A) Orthomosaic of the best-preserved group of clusters in the stromatolitic level MNE5. (B) Wind rose plot of the first-order channels. This figure shows a clear hydraulic tendency of the first-order channels in the E/SE-W/NW direction. Wind rose normalized to the horizontal. (C) Channel classification by order and relative dimensions at section view of clusters based on the macro-, meso-, and microstructural description of the stromatolitic level MNE5.

In the lower part of the same section, Frías-Saba et al. (2021) described a new microbialitic level composed of domical shapes up to 25 cm. The internal morphology of these domes shows a basal sector with columnar structures alternating with laminated structures and an upper sector with well-developed columns separated by the third-order channels, similar to those described by Villafañe et al. (2021). The authors suggested that these microbialites developed in a subtidal/intertidal environment with moderate to high hydrodynamic energy were controlled by a shallowing upward process.

Microbialites in Metán-Alemanía sub-basin

In the Metán sub-basin, most of the works focused on the description and interpretation of microbialites were carried out in the Cabra Corral dam area and its surroundings. Microbialites have different stratigraphic positions, spanning in Maastrichtian-Danian time.

Initially, Gabaglia et al. (2011) conducted a comprehensive cyclostratigraphic and climatic study of the Balbuena Supersequence, in which they report microbialitic intervals centimetric to metric in thickness. Although they do not perform detailed work on these microbialitic intervals, they suggested that these organo-sedimentary levels developed in a lacustrine environment, but possibly under a subordinate influence of relative open sea-level changes affecting the lacustrine base level.

Roemers-Oliveira et al. (2015) identified at least two intervals of stromatolitic levels, ranging from 20 to 50 cm in thickness, in several outcrops of the Balbuena III Sequence (Maastrichtian/Danian) in the Metán sub-basin. The lower stratum is characterized by tabular stromatolites of the LLH type (sensu Logan et al. 1964), while in the upper stratum the stromatolites are domic of the SH type (sensu Logan et al. 1964) (Fig. 3C). Both levels have a columnar internal structure and a cerebroid aspect. The authors suggested a closed lacustrine environment, with negative water balance (evaporation > precipitation) and limited sediment input, where these organo-sedimentary structures would have developed in coastal areas in the lacustrine environment under shallow waters (photic zone).

On the contrary, Bunevich et al. (2017) worked in the same region but in the Balbuena IV Sequence (Danian) and described three main types of microbiological morphologies, namely, domical (Fig. 3D), tabular, and planar. Based on their intrabioarchitecture, they defined seven types of organo-sedimentary structures:

• coarse-grained agglutinant microbialite;

• banded fasciculate/fine-grained agglutinant microbialite;

• pseudo-microcolumnar micrite-binding microbialite;

• “arbustiforme” fine-grained agglutinant microbialite;

• fine-grained agglutinating dendriform microbialite;

• fine-grained banded microbialite with spherulites;

• coarse-grained agglutinating stromatolite.

These structures are associated with a lacustrine environment with fluctuating climatic conditions and increasing aridity. The climatic variations affected the base level of the lake, as well as the input of siliciclastic sediments, biotic, and geochemical processes, influencing the final morphology of these microbialitic systems.

In the upper part of Yacoraite Formation (Juramento member), Metán Sub-basin, Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas (2014) described hemispherical dome stromatolites with internal lamination and heights ranging from 90 to 100 cm. The authors suggested that these structures developed in an intertidal or high intertidal environment, with high hydrodynamic energy, episodes of sub-aerial exposure and high salinity.

From this sub-basin, even from an upper position of the Early Paleocene Yacoraite Formation, Gomes et al. (2020) reported the presence of two types of organo-sedimentary structures:

• laminated domes (micrite and agglutinated material) with thicknesses ranging from 20 to 110 cm;

• microbialites with tabular geometry and millimeter-thick microbialitic layers interbedded with fangolites and grainstones.

Both levels respond to a lacustrine environment in shoreline positions, subjected to transgressive and regressive variations. Laminated domes are related to periods of relatively high lacustrine level, while microbialites with tabular geometry and millimeter-thick microbialitic layers are related to a reducing environment with high organic matter content.

Finally, near the town of Amblayo (Alemanía sub-basin), Quiroga (2021) described stromatolitic domes of up to 17 cm diameter and 12 cm high. Internally, these domes present two zones of laminated columns developed around a core, giving rise to an internal structure of the SS-I type (sensu Logan et al. 1964). The author suggests that these organo-sedimentary structures are formed in a shallow intertidal environment under the important hydrodynamic influence, with a marked storm episode that caused the rotation of the structure.

METAZOA-MICROBIALITES INTERACTION

Currently, the role that grazing and burrowing metazoans had in disrupting the Phanerozoic microbial mats that formed microbialites is a major topic of discussion (Rishworth et al. 2019). One of the most important structures to understand the interaction between organisms and biogenic substrates is bioclaustrations (see Tapanila 2005).

Bioclaustrations have been reported in Cenozoic microbialitic deposits from Wyoming, USA (Eocene) (Lamond and Tapanila 2003); Lodward, Kenya (Pleistocene-Holocene) (Lamond and Tapanila 2003); and Eastern Cape coast, South Africa (Holocene) (Rishworth et al. 2019). The study of these structures provides further evidence for the refugia hypothesis, where metazoans are not necessarily restrictive of microbialite integrity under certain conditions (Rishworth et al. 2019). However, much remains to be discussed regarding the metazoa–microbialites interaction, and few Phanerozoic records have been studied.

Initially, through a study of gastropods associated with trace fossils in the Yacoraite Formation, Cónsole-Gonella et al. (2009) described clavate borings in stromatolites from the Juella locality (Tres Cruces sub-basin). The construction in the opening section of borings immediately distinguishes it from Trypanites, and typical Gatrochaenolites varies in size in diameter from 2 to 45 mm and length from 3 to 100 mm. This study allowed defining a shallow depositional environment, characteristic of a marine context under high-energy conditions.

In Metan sub-basin, domal stromatolitic boundstones in the shallow carbonate facies at the top of the Yacoraite Formation (Upper Cretaceous-Lower Paleocene) present peculiar cavities interpreted as bioclaustrations (Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas 2014). This is the oldest reported record of bioclaustrations in stromatolites and the first in shallow marine environments. Bioclaustrations in stromatolites from the Yacoraite Formation have circular cavities that reach 12 mm in diameter (Figs. 5A and 5B). In transversal section, conical morphologies without lateral connection developed parallel to the growth axis of the domes were observed (Fig. 5C). These morphologies provide clear evidence of “incrustante”-microbialite symbiosis (Tapanila and Ekdale 2007, Tapanila 2008).

Figure 5
Yacoraite Formation stromatolites and bioclaustrations. (A) Bedding-plane view of stromatolite domes riddled with bioclaustrations cavities. (B) Surface view of stromatolite with bioclaustrations. The cavities are filled with clayey shale and ooids. (C) View of two bioclaustrations structures in cross section.

The interpretation of the stromatolitic facies and their stratigraphical/sedimentological context suggests an environmentally stressed shallow high salinity marine setting, represented by an intertidal setting within an extensive tidal flat. From the standpoint of chronostratigraphy, the time at which endobionts colonized the stromatolitic mat coincides with the end of the deposition of the Yacoraite Formation (Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas 2014).

Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas (2014) demonstrated how the study of bioclaustrations in microbialites can provide important tools for fine-tuning paleoenvironmental and paleobiological reconstructions. They also suggested that deeper neoichnological studies regarding relationship between biofilms and metazoans would probably allow further specification of the possible range of bioclaustration producers on microbialitic substrates.

Paleobiological interaction among avian track-makers, worm-like burrowers, and biofilms have been discussed from Maimará and Quebrada del Tapón ichnosites (de Valais and Cónsole-Gonella 2019) (Fig. 6). The ichnological evidence and the presence of MISS (microbially induced sedimentary structures) seem to support a putative trophic network, composing of at least three levels:

Figure 6
Evidence of paleobiological interaction. Several avian tracks (Gruipeda avis = “Yacoraitichnus avis”) from Valle del Tonco, Salta Province, Yacoraite Formation.

• the mats and biofilms as the producers of the paleocommunity, represented by the cyanobacteria, algae, archaea, and unicellular eukaryotes, such as diatoms;

• the herbivores or first-order consumer, represented by invertebrates, and probably some birds, feeding on the microbial mats;

• the second-order consumers or carnivores, performed by others birds eating the invertebrates (de Valais and Cónsole-Gonella 2019).

These feeding strategies resemble those of modern wading birds (Kushlan 1978, Lockley et al. 1994). Neoichnological studies have reinforced this concept, showing that low energy stages in such environments allow, first, the establishment of microbial mats, and second, its colonization by the invertebrates, probably food of the wading birds (e.g., Swennen and Van der Baan 1959, Cadée 1990). This type of association seems to be recurrent since the Mesozoic, as suggested by Lockley et al. (1994) and Doyle et al. (2000).

ECONOMIC INTEREST OF MICROBIALITE LEVELS IN THE YACORAITE FORMATION

Actually, more than 60% of the petroleum in the world and 40% of the gas had been found in carbonate-type reservoirs (Schlumberger 2007). In this type of reservoirs, microbialites play an important role. Some well-known examples are, for instance, the Cretaceous Brazilian pre-salt, the Smackover microbial reservoir (Jurassic) in the Little Cedar Creek of Alabama (United States), the microbial carbonates of the Xiaoerbulak Formation (Lower Cambrian) in the Tarim basin (China), or microbialite boundstone in the Cameia Field of Kwanza Basin (Angola) (e.g., Al Haddad and Mancini 2013, Cazier et al. 2014, Jinmin et al. 2014, Abelha and Petersohn 2018).

The Yacoraite Formation (Maastrichtian-Danian), in northwestern Argentina, is a deposit of similar features and potential economic interest (e.g., Masaferro et al. 2004, Starck 2011). This unit has the particularity of including, among its facies, interbedded with parent (shales) and reservoir rocks (carbonate rocks) (Grosso et al. 2013). Yacoraite Formation has been studied for exploratory purposes (e.g., Boll and Hernández 1985, Gómez-Omil et al. 1989, Boll 1991, Gómez-Omil and Boll 2005, Hernández et al. 2008), supported by state agencies through exploration projects for conventional and nonconventional systems of Argentine oil basins made by YPF, S.A. Likewise, it has been included in the Strategic Production Plan (2011–2020) of the Jujuy Province, which highlights a historical productivity of 9,887,000 m³ for the Caimancito well (Calilegua, Jujuy) and also emphasizes the need to invest in its exploration (Benetti et al. 2011).

Another point that arouses interest in the microbialitic facies of the Yacoraite Formation is their potential as an analog for the Brazilian pre-salt. In the past decade, no other country has discovered hydrocarbon volumes similar to those of the Brazilian pre-salt, positioning this country as one of the most important when it comes to satisfying world energy demand (Abelha and Petersohn 2018). This oil province is characterized by large prospects for excellent quality light oil, accumulated in mostly or only partially (depending on dominant interpretation theories on their genesis) microbialitic and bioclastic carbonate facies, and deposited between the Barremian and Aptian (e.g. Rangel and Carminatti 2000, Muniz and Bosence 2015, Thompson et al. 2015).

In general terms, the facies assigned to microbialites in the Brazilian pre-salt were developed in lacustrine shallow marine depositional environment during the Sag phase, which suggests that microbial organisms played important roles in sediment production and accumulation (e.g. Borsato et al. 2012, Dorobek et al. 2012, Lima and De Ros 2019). In Yacoraite Formation, a carbonate-dominated succession has been also deposited during a sag phase in the Salta rift system (Roemers-Oliveira et al. 2015). Because of this, numerous works have suggested the microbialites of the Yacoraite Formation as an excellent analog for Brazilian pre-salt microbialites (e.g. Hamon et al. 2012, Bunevich et al. 2017, Adelinet et al. 2018, Deschamps et al. 2020, Gomes et al. 2020). Using these analogous deposits to increase the knowledge of lacustrine microbialites may be of great importance to make predictions regarding the construction of facies models that may suggest the location of large, stratigraphically significant, lacustrine microbialite reservoirs in the subsurface (Awramik and Buchheim 2012). However, the great variety in the organo-sedimentary facies of this formation limits extrapolations at different scales of work (Rangel and Carminatti 2000, Durieux and Brown 2007, Romero-Sarmiento et al. 2019, Gomes et al. 2020, Ruiz-Monroy 2021).

From a technical point of view, one of the most important aspects related to microbialitic reservoir extraction is its inherent complexity. This complexity is linked to the variety of processes that influence the pore genesis, which in turn generates variations in the quality and efficiency of these deposits and that can lead to technical risks (e.g. Humbolt 2008, Tonietto et al. 2012, Machado et al. 2015, Rezende and Pope 2015). Understanding pore genesis and how it relates to microfabric is crucial in the sub-surface mapping, for evaluation of the petrophysical flow units within organo-sedimentary deposits (Ahr et al. 2005).

Along Tres Cruces sub-basin, the microstructure of microbialitic levels in Yacoraite Formation is mainly controlled by in situ biologically induced carbonatic precipitation and to a lesser extent by “trapping and binding” (Cónsole-Gonella et al. 2017, Frías-Saba et al. 2021, Villafañe et al. 2021). In addition, the microstructure is directly influenced by the hydrodynamic conditions of the environment (Frías-Saba et al. 2021, Villafañe et al. 2021). Some authors suggest that after the microbial growth, diagenetic processes such as fluid circulation and recrystallization may affect the petrophysical features of these structures, giving rise to a variety of pores (see Frías-Saba et al. 2021, Villafañe et al. 2021).

Villafañe and Cónsole-Gonella (2019) and Villafañe et al. (2021) defined different types of pores in one microbialitic level of Maimará section (MNE5): intraparticle, vug, cavern, fenestral, intercrystalline, interparticle (Fig. 7). These have a good interconnectivity and reached a porosity of 29.7%. Different types of fenestral porosity (irregular voids and bubble-like vugs) described in this level support the importance of understanding the role of biological activity for better evaluating the petrophysical characteristics of these systems (see Villafañe et al. 2021). In addition, the same succession shows diagenetic processes, such as dolomitization, that can also affect the pore genesis and the porosity percentages (Villafañe and Cónsole-Gonella 2019, Frías-Saba et al. 2021) (Fig. 8).

Figure 7
Different types of porosities observed in the stromatolites of the MNE5 level, Maimará, Jujuy (Tres Cruces sub-basin). (A) Intercrystalline porosity (Ic). (B) Fenestral porosity (F), parallel to the lamination. (C and D) Nonselective factory porosity of cavern (c) and vug type (v). (E and F) Cavities filled by clastic material where interparticle (Ig) and intraparticle (Ip) porosity are observed. Modified from Villafañe and Cónsole-Gonella (2019).

Figure 8
Different porosity types of the Yacoraite Formation described by Villafañe and Cónsole-Gonella (2019) plotted in the triangle classification of Ahr et al. (2005) modified by Humbolt (2008). Villafañe and Cónsole-Gonella (2019) described the whole interconnection of the pores as high, except for the vug type. Even when this type of porosity is post-depositional, the interconnection increases directly with the diagenesis (e.g., making cavern types).

The growth of the microbialitic levels described in Metán-Alemanía sub-basin is controlled both by in situ biologically induced carbonatic precipitation and “trapping and binding”. This allows different primary porosities among which we can mention intraparticle, intercrystalline, and fenestral porosities (Roemers-Oliveira et al. 2015, Bunevich et al. 2017, Gomes et al. 2020). As in the Tres Cruces sub-basin, post-depositional processes increase the pore rates. Some of them are related to dissolution and dolomitization (Bunevich et al. 2017, Gomes et al. 2020), while others are biologically induced, such as bioerosion (Cónsole-Gonella and Marquillas 2014).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Based on the number of deposits mentioned in this work, the Yacoraite Formation represents one of the most important microbialitic records in Argentina and South America. Although the presence of these organo-sedimentary structures was initially limited to brief mentions or descriptions, in the past 20 years, these microbialites of Yacoraite Formation have been deeply discussed in studies that focused on the understanding of the dynamics of the systems, considerably increasing their importance for economic geology.

The microbialitic deposits occur in different sub-basins occupying different stratigraphic positions within the Yacoraite Formation. The Tres Cruces and Metán sub-basins show the highest abundance of microbialites. In the Tres Cruces sub-basin, microbialites are restricted to the Maastrichtian, while in Metán sub-basin, they range from the Maastrichtian to the Danian.

These microbialitic beds are associated with diverse paleoenvironmental conditions, resulting in a great variety of structures and morphologies, which respond mainly to hydrodynamic energy, bathymetry and the mineral saturation/sedimentary input ratio. As several authors have shown, these records represent reliable and high-resolution proxies for understanding regional environmental changes through time. In addition, some deposits provide the possibility to discuss important ecological paradigms, such as the relationship between biofilms and metazoans.

In general, microbialites of Yacoraite Formation show promising petrophysical conditions to be evaluated as reservoir rocks. However, it is important to highlight that these porosity values are directly affected by the microbial (and diagenetic) activity, being necessary to carry out new studies in order to model the porosity-microstructure relationship.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In memory of our friend and colleague Dr. Carlos Cónsole-Gonella, who has made numerous contributions to the study of the Yacoraite Formation. This research was supported by grant PICT 2017-2057 (C. Cónsole-Gonella and S. de Valais) from the Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Técnica (Argentina). We are grateful to the Maimará community for their help in different stages of the fieldwork.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  09 Jan 2023
• Date of issue
  2022

History

• Received
  14 Dec 2021
• Accepted
  10 Oct 2022