Abstracts
Episodic memory enables the storage of personal events with specific temporal and spatial details, and their retrieval through a sensory experience, usually visual, which is called autonoetic consciousness. While, in Brazil, several scales for the evaluation of anterograde episodic memory have been validated, there is not yet an instrument to assess the episodic autobiographical memory. The aim of this study is thus to make a cross-cultural adaptation and validation of the Episodic Autobiographic Memory Interview (EAMI) for Brazilian Portuguese. Altogether, 11 patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and 10 healthy controls (CTs) were evaluated. EAMI scores for AD patients were lower than those of CTs, and these scores also correlated positively with the Remember-Know coefficient. The intraclass correlation coefficient indicated a good inter-rater reliability. The Portuguese version of EAMI showed a good reliability and validity, which suggests that it is a useful tool for evaluation of autobiographical memory in Brazilian patients.
episodic memory; autobiographical memory; Alzheimer’s disease
A memória episódica possibilita o arquivamento de eventos pessoais, com seus detalhes temporais e espaciais, e sua recuperação através de uma experiência sensorial, geralmente visual, chamada de consciência autonoética. No Brasil, foram validados vários instrumentos para avaliação da memória episódica anterógrada, porém não há ainda uma escala para avaliar a memória episódica autobiográfica. O objetivo deste estudo é realizar uma validação e adaptação transcultural da Entrevista para avaliação da Memória Episódica Autobiográfica (EMEA) para o português brasileiro. Onze pacientes com doença de Alzheimer (DA) e 10 controles normais foram avaliados. Os escores dos pacientes com DA na EMEA foram menores do que nos controles saudáveis. Estes escores se correlacionaram positivamente com o coeficiente Lembrar-Saber. O coeficiente de correlação intraclasse indicou uma confiabilidade inter-examinadores adequada. A EMEA demonstrou uma boa validade e confiabilidade, sugerindo que ela é um instrumento útil para a avaliação da memória autobiográfica em pacientes brasileiros.
memória episódica; memória autobiográfica; doença de Alzheimer
Memory is defined as the ability to archive information and make it available for later
retrieval, which allows the mind to draw upon previous experiences during
decision-making11 .Tulving, E. How many memory systems are there? Am Psychol.
1985;40(4):385-98.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.4.385
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.4.3...
.
There are several memory systems, classified in accordance with clinical and
neuroanatomical features that have become known in recent decades. Working memory refers
to the ability to consciously retain information for about 60 seconds22 .Baddeley AD, Warrington EK. Amnesia and the distinction between
long- and short-term memory. J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav. 1970;9(2):176-89.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80048-2
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80...
. Procedural memory enables connections
to be made between complex stimuli and motor responses, such as the ability to play the
piano or play tennis, for example33 .Cohen NJ, Squire LR. Preserved learning and retention of
pattern-analyzing skill in amnesia: dissociation of knowing how and knowing
that. Science. 1980;210(4466):207-10.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.7414331
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7414331...
.
Semantic memory is the ability to archive general information, allowing an individual to
build mental models of the world, such as knowing the face of a former president or
remembering the capital city of a given country44 .Quillian MR. Word concepts: a theory and simulation of some basic
semantic capabilities. Behav Sci. 1967;12(5):410-30.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830120511
https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830120511...
. Episodic memory allows for the storage of personally
experienced events, with their specific temporal and spatial occurrences55 .Tulving E. Memory and consciousness. CanPsychol. 1985; 26(1):1-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0080017
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080017...
and subsequent recall through a sensory
experience, usually visual, which is called autonoetic consciousness55 .Tulving E. Memory and consciousness. CanPsychol. 1985; 26(1):1-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0080017
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080017...
.
The way that declarative memories (i.e. semantic memories and episodic memories) are
stored in the brain is still under debate. The “Standard Model of Memory Consolidation”
affirms that memories are initially stored in the hippocampus and, over time, are
transferred to the cerebral cortex. Consequently, patients with hippocampal injury would
lose only the most recent declarative memory, leaving long-term memories intact66 .Alvarez P, Squire LR. Memory consolidation and the medial temporal
lobe: a simple network model. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1994;91(15):7041-5.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.15.7041
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. However, overwhelming evidence
suggests that patients with hippocampal lesions experience a predominant loss of
episodic memory with little involvement of semantic memories77 .Damasio AR, Eslinger PJ, Damasio H, Van Hoesen GW, Cornell S.
Multimodal amnesic syndrome following bilateral temporal and basal forebrain
damage. Arch Neurol. 1985;42(3):252-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1985.04060030070012
https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1985.04...
, which has led Nadel and Moscovitch88 .Nadel L, Moscovitch M. Memory consolidation, retrograde amnesia and
the hippocampal complex. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1997;7(2):217-27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(97)80010-4
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(97)80...
to develop a new model for memory
consolidation, known as the “Multiple Trace Theory” (MTT). According to the MTT,
semantic memories are progressively transferred to the neocortex and episodic memories
are always stored in the hippocampus.
Although further studies corroborate the anatomical distribution advocated by the
MTT99 .Piolino P, Desgranges B, Belliard S, Matuszewski V, Lalevée C, De
la Sayette V et al. Autobiographical memory and autonoetic consciousness: triple
dissociation in neurodegenerative diseases. Brain. 2003;126(10):2203-19.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg222
https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg222...
, this theory cannot yet
explain how episodic memories are stored in the hippocampus. For example, anterograde
episodic memories and episodic autobiographical memories may be stored differently.
Newly amnestic syndromes in epileptic patients have revealed a dissociation between
anterograde and autobiographical episodic memories, namely in Accelerated Long-term
Forgetting1010 .Butler CR, Zeman AZ. Recent insights into the impairment of memory
in epilepsy: transient epileptic amnesia, accelerated long-term forgetting and
remote memory impairment. Brain. 2008;131(9):2243-63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn127
https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn127...
and Transient
Epileptic Amnesia1010 .Butler CR, Zeman AZ. Recent insights into the impairment of memory
in epilepsy: transient epileptic amnesia, accelerated long-term forgetting and
remote memory impairment. Brain. 2008;131(9):2243-63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn127
https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn127...
. In both these
conditions, patients often have normal anterograde episodic memory with frequent
impairment of autobiographical memory1010 .Butler CR, Zeman AZ. Recent insights into the impairment of memory
in epilepsy: transient epileptic amnesia, accelerated long-term forgetting and
remote memory impairment. Brain. 2008;131(9):2243-63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn127
https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn127...
,1111 .Milton F, Muhlert N, Pindus DM, Butler CR, Kapur N, Graham KS et
al. Remote memory deficits in transient epileptic amnesia. Brain.
2010;133(5):1368-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq055
https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq055...
. Recently, Coras et al.1212 .Coras R, Pauli E, Li J, Schwarz M, Rössler K, Buchfelder M et al.
Differential influence of hippocampal subfields to memory formation: insights
from patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain. 2014;137(7):1945-57.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu100
https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu100...
have demonstrated that hippocampal sclerosis patients with
greater neuronal loss in CA3, CA4 and the dentate gyrus have a predominant loss of
anterograde memory, and that, conversely, those with predominant neuronal loss in CA1
generally have normal anterograde memory. These findings suggest that intra-hippocampal
anatomical regions may be associated with specific subtypes of episodic memory.
In Brazil, there are several tests to assess anterograde episodic memory, such as the Rey
Auditory Verbal Learning Test1313 .Malloy-Diniz LF, Cruz MF, Torres V, Cosenza R. O teste de
Aprendizagem Auditivo-Verbal de Rey: normas para uma população brasileira. Rev
Bras Neurol. 2000;36(3):79-83., and
the Memory of Figures Test (MFT) 1414 .Nitrini R, Lefèvre BH, Mathias SC, Caramelli P, Carrilho PE, Sauaia
N et al. [Neuropsychological tests of simple application for diagnosing
dementia]. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 1994;52(4):457-65. Portuguese.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X1994000400001
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X199400...
.
However, there is not yet a validated instrument for the study of episodic
autobiographical memory. The aim of this work is therefore to translate, adapt and
validate the Autobiographic Episodic Memory Interview (EAMI)1515 .Irish M, Lawlor BA, O’Mara SM, Coen RF. Assessment of behavioural
markers of autonoetic consciousness during episodic autobiographical memory
retrieval: a preliminary analysis. Behav Neurol. 2008;19(1-2):3-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2008/691925
https://doi.org/10.1155/2008/691925...
in a population of Brazilian amnestic patients.
METHOD
Selection of patients
Participants were healthy controls or patients with AD, diagnosed according to
the National Institute on Ageing and Alzheimer’s Association Criteria1616 .McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, Hyman BT, Jack CR Jr, Kawas CH
et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations
from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on
diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement.
2011;7(3):263-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.0...
who attended the Behavioral
Neurology Service of the Hospital das Clinicas de Ribeirao Preto. Participants
who fulfilled one or more of the following items were excluded from this study:
1) Presence of depressive symptoms, characterized by a score of five or more on
Geriatric Depression Scale1717 .D’Ath P, Katona P, Mullan E, Evans S, Katona C. Screening,
detection and management of depression in elderly primary care attenders. I: the
acceptability and performance of the 15 item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS15)
and the development of short versions. Fam Pract. 1994;11(3):260-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fampra/11.3.260
https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/11.3.260...
;
2) evidence of cerebrovascular disease, confirmed by a score of four or more in
the Hachinski Ischemic Score1818 .Hachinski VC, Iliff LD, Zilhka E, Du Boulay GH, McAllister VL,
Marshall J et al. Cerebral blood flow in dementia. Arch Neurol.
1975;32(9):632-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1975.00490510088009
https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1975.00...
or neuroimaging suggestive of cerebrovascular damage; 3) history of excessive
alcohol intake; 4) presence of Parkinsonism; 5) age lower than 65 years; 6)
schooling of less than 2 years; and 7) use of medications that could potentially
interfere with cognitive abilities.
Neuropsychological assessment
Participants global cognitive status was assessed using the Mini-Mental State
Examination1919 .Brucki SM, Nitrini R, Caramelli P, Bertolucci PH, Okamoto IH.
[Suggestions for utilization of the mini-mental state examination in Brazil].
Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2003;61(3B):777-81. Portuguese.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X2003000500014
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X200300...
. Anterograde
episodic memory was estimated using the MFT1414 .Nitrini R, Lefèvre BH, Mathias SC, Caramelli P, Carrilho PE, Sauaia
N et al. [Neuropsychological tests of simple application for diagnosing
dementia]. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 1994;52(4):457-65. Portuguese.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X1994000400001
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X199400...
. The semantic verbal fluency test and clock
drawing test2020 .Sunderland T, Hill JL, Mellow AM, Lower BA, Gundersheimer J,
Newhouse PA. Clock drawing in Alzheimer’s disease: a novel measure of dementia
severity. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1989;37(8):725-9. were used to
evaluate executive function/language and visuospatial abilities, respectively.
Direct and backward digit span tests were used to assess attention and working
memory. The Geriatric Depression Scale1717 .D’Ath P, Katona P, Mullan E, Evans S, Katona C. Screening,
detection and management of depression in elderly primary care attenders. I: the
acceptability and performance of the 15 item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS15)
and the development of short versions. Fam Pract. 1994;11(3):260-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fampra/11.3.260
https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/11.3.260...
was employed to assess the presence of depressive
symptoms. The Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ)2121 .Pfeffer RI, Kurosaki TT, Harrah CH Jr, Chance JM, Filos S.
Measurement of functional activities in older adults in the community. J
Gerontol. 1982;37(3):323-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronj/37.3.323
https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/37.3.323...
and AD-82222 .Correia CC, Lima F, Junqueira F, Campos MS, Bastos O, Petribú K et
al. AD8-Brazil: cross-cultural validation of the ascertaining dementia interview
in Portuguese. J Alzheimers Dis. 2011;27(1):177-85.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2011-100915
https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2011-100915...
were completed by a caregiver, and the results
were used to quantify functional impairment and assess their perception of
patients’ cognitive status. Finally, we applied an adapted version of the
Remember-Know paradigm55 .Tulving E. Memory and consciousness. CanPsychol. 1985; 26(1):1-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0080017
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080017...
.
Briefly, we presented a sequence of 20 pairs of words constituted of a target and its categorical classification (e.g. Saturn-Planet), and asked participants to memorize the target for a subsequent test. These dyads were presented one by one, each for a duration on 5 seconds using an automatic projection of PowerPoint®. Using the clock drawing test as a distractor, participants were asked to freely recall the target words (spontaneous recall). After each answer, participants were asked if they remembered the exact moment that the word was presented (a Remember answer) or simply knew that the word was that (a Know answer). Following this, participants were presented with categorical words only, and were encouraged to say the associated target word (assisted recall). Again, this was followed by a Remember-Know question procedure. We calculated the Remember-Know coefficient (RKc) by subtracting the wrong “Remember” responses by the correct “Remember” answers and dividing this figure by the total number of words presented.
EAMI adaptation and validation process
The EAMI1515 .Irish M, Lawlor BA, O’Mara SM, Coen RF. Assessment of behavioural
markers of autonoetic consciousness during episodic autobiographical memory
retrieval: a preliminary analysis. Behav Neurol. 2008;19(1-2):3-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2008/691925
https://doi.org/10.1155/2008/691925...
is a semi-structured
interview that aims to evaluate autobiographical memory, notably its episodic
component. The EAMI is divided in 3 parts: 1) Personal Semantics (names of
people, daily living, an important date); 2) Autobiographical Event Recall
(event detail, temporal specificity, sensory/perceptual detail, spatial
specificity, emotion, implication, thoughts); and 3) Autonoetic Awareness
Assessment. This last part is entirely qualitative and is subdivided in 5
multiple choice items: 3.1) Perspective (own eyes; third person’s perspective;
neither; no image); 3.2) Continuity (do the images follow in sequence with no
gaps in between?; How would you describe the event as it appears in your mind’s
eye?); 3.3) Rehearsal (have you thought/spoken about this event since it
occurred? frequently; occasionally; rarely; never); 3.4) Emotional Connection
(when you remember this event, do you re-experience the same emotions as you
felt at the time? 0%; 25%; 50%; 75%; 100%. do you feel any physical trace of
this emotion?); and 3.5) Recollective Experience (would you say you are reliving
what happened? or are you more like an observer looking back on the event? to
what extent do you feel you are re-experiencing the memory? 0%; 25%; 50%; 75%;
100%).
The EAMI is scored according to memories provided by the patient across the lifespan, from Childhood (0-15 years), to Early Adulthood (16-30 years), to Middle Adulthood (31-45 years), to Later Adulthood (46 years, up to 5 years ago) to Recent memory (in the last 5 years). The EAMI score is the sum of Personal Semantics and Autobiographical Events points, and the maximum score is 105.
The process of translation and cultural adaptation of the EAMI was prepared
according to the recommendations provided by Beaton et al.2323 .Beaton DE, Bombardier C, Guillemin F, Ferraz MB. Guidelines for the
process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. Spine. 2000;
25(24):3186-91.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00007632-200012150-00014
https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-2000121...
Two native Portuguese speakers with English
fluency independently translated the EAMI. Through a comparison of both
versions, a consensual version was created. This version was then
back-translated into English by two English teachers, who then created a
consensual English version that was re-evaluated with the authors of the first
translation to achieve a final version in English. Next, this was sent to the
author of the scale (Muireann Irish, PhD), who suggested some changes and
ratified the final version.
The inter-rater reliability of EAMI was measured by a second evaluation of 15
randomly selected individuals, using audio recordings of the original
interviews. The second examiner was unaware of the patients’ diagnosis and
received only written instructions of the scale. The intraclass correlation
coefficient was employed to measure the degree of agreement between the scores.
The reliability coefficient Cronbach’s α was used to measure the internal
consistency of the EAMI. The RKc was used as the main measure of construct
validation, since it has been considered the best way to classify memories as
episodic or semantic55 .Tulving E. Memory and consciousness. CanPsychol. 1985; 26(1):1-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0080017
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080017...
.
Statistical analysis
It is necessary to obtain data from 9 participants on each arm in order to achieve a 1.5 standard deviation difference between amnestic and control scores on the EAMI, with a type 1 error of 5% and type 2 error of 20%.
All results were analyzed for normality of distribution by the Shapiro-Wilk test. The presentation of data was performed using the mean and standard deviation if normally distributed, and using the median with interquartile range if non-normally distributed. Continuous variables were compared using the Student’s t-Test if data was normally distributed or the Mann-Whitney test if non-normally distributed. To evaluate the influence of age and schooling on the final EAMI scores, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with these items as covariates was performed. The analysis of categorical data from the Autonoetic Awareness Assessment was made using the Fisher’s exact test. The degree of correlation among EAMI, RKc, and MFT were estimated by the Pearson’s or Spearman’s correlation coefficient, depending on normal or non-normal distribution of data, respectively. In tests in which multiple comparisons were performed, the Bonferroni correction was applied. Statistical tests were executed with R (http://www.R-project.org) and Wizard Statistic Package (http://www.wizardmac.com) programs.
Ethics
The ethical board of the Hospital das Clinicas de Ribeirao Preto approved the research protocol (n. 1155/2012). All patients provided informed consent for participation in this study.
RESULTS
The demographic and neuropsychological data of participants are summarized in Table 1. The EAMI scores presented a good discrimination between patients and controls (Figure 1). Education and Age did not significantly influence the final EAMI score (F = 3.47, p = 0.08 and F = 0.7, p = 0.4, respectively).
Control subjects also had superior performance to AD patients in all memory tests performed.
The Pearson’s correlation coefficient between EAMI scores and delayed recall of the MFT was 0.84 (p < 0.001); between EAMI and spontaneous and assisted recall of word list test was 0.73 and 0.83 respectively (both p < 0.001); Spearman’s correlation coefficient between EAMI and RKc was 0.71 (p < 0.001) (Figure 2).
For the measures of reliability, the intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.99 on the subscale of Personal Semantics, and 0.98 in Autobiographical Event Recall. Internal consistency, measured by Cronbach’s α, was 0.73 and 0.86 respectively.
Some items of the Autonoetic Awareness Assessment subscale were also able to discriminate between AD patients and controls, especially in items related to the formation of visual imagery and sense of reliving the remembered event (Table 2).
DISCUSSION
This study carried out the cultural adaptation and validation of a Brazilian Portuguese version of the EAMI. We compared the performance in the EAMI with other measures of episodic memory, such as the delayed recall of the MFT, the subtests of spontaneous and assisted recall of the word list, and the RKc, from the Remember-Know paradigm. There was a strong correlation between EAMI and the episodic memory scores derived from these tests, which supports the construct validity of our Portuguese version of the EAMI.
The EAMI was able to differentiate healthy subjects from AD patients, both in the
Personal Semantics and Autobiographical Events subscales. This finding is consistent
with previous AD patient studies that have used other instruments for assessing
autobiographical memory2424 .Dall’Ora P, Della Sala S, Spinnler H. Autobiographical memory: its
impairment in amnesic syndromes. Cortex. 1989;25(2):197-217.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(89)80037-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(89)80...
,2525 .Greene JDW, Hodges JR, Baddeley AD. Autobiographical memory and
executive function in early dementia of Alzheimer type. Neuropsychologia.
1995;33:1647-70.,2626 .Graham KS, Hodges JR. Differentiating the roles of the hippocampal
complex and the neocortex in long-term memory storage: evidence from the study
of semantic dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychology. 1997;11(1):77-89.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.11.1.77
https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.11.1.7...
,2727 .Hou CE, Miller BL, Kramer JH. Patterns of autobiographical memory
loss in dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005;20(9):809-15.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gps.1361
https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.1361...
. Despite the fact that AD patients in the current study
were older and less educated than control group, these variables had little
influence on the final EAMI score.
The ability to discriminate controls from AD patients was also observed in the
Autonoetic Awareness Assessment section of the EAMI, in the items related to the
formation of visual imagery and to the feeling of reliving the event remembered. In
this study, no difference was observed between AD patients and controls regarding
the emotional association with the recalled memory. As several studies suggest there
to be a strong relationship between memory and emotion2828 .Phelps EA. Human emotion and memory: interactions of the amygdala
and hippocampal complex. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2004;14(2):198-202.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.015
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.0...
, it is likely that the EAMI is not an adequately
sensitive tool for assessing emotional responses to the act of remembering an
episodic memory. It is noteworthy that this pattern of responses is in agreement
with previously published EAMI data from patients with Mild Cognitive
Impairment2929 .Irish M, Lawlor BA, O’Mara SM, Coen RF. Exploring the recollective
experience during autobiographical memory retrieval in amnestic mild cognitive
impairment. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2010;16(3):546-55.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617710000172
https://doi.org/10.1017/S135561771000017...
and AD3030 .Irish M, Lawlor BA, O’Mara SM, Coen RF. Impaired capacity for
autonoetic reliving during autobiographical event recall in mild Alzheimer’s
disease. Cortex. 2011;47(2):236-49.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2010.01.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2010.01...
.
There was a high internal consistency among the EAMI items, observed in both the
Autobiographical Events and Personal Semantics subscales. We found there to be high
inter-rater reliability, as revealed by strong correlations between the scores of
the two examiners in both the Personal Semantics and Autobiographical Events
subscales, a finding that well reflects the original publication of the EAMI1515 .Irish M, Lawlor BA, O’Mara SM, Coen RF. Assessment of behavioural
markers of autonoetic consciousness during episodic autobiographical memory
retrieval: a preliminary analysis. Behav Neurol. 2008;19(1-2):3-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2008/691925
https://doi.org/10.1155/2008/691925...
. It is important to note that the
analysis of the inter-rater reliability of an instrument that assesses the
occurrence of spontaneous memories requires a specific methodology, especially
considering that a participants may recall different memories in different
interviews and therefore receive different scores in each. With this in mind, Irish
et al.1515 .Irish M, Lawlor BA, O’Mara SM, Coen RF. Assessment of behavioural
markers of autonoetic consciousness during episodic autobiographical memory
retrieval: a preliminary analysis. Behav Neurol. 2008;19(1-2):3-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2008/691925
https://doi.org/10.1155/2008/691925...
chose for a first
examiner to write the answers of each patient and for a second examiner, independent
of the original session, to score these written responses. However, it is possible
that, while writing down the responses, the first examiner may have given a
subliminal indication of an item’s score. For this reason, we chose to record the
interview and deliver full, unedited audio to the second examiner. Additionally,
this second examiner was given only written instructions on how to apply the scale,
which also allowed us to test their intelligibility; the high correlation between
the two examiners’ thus also demonstrates that the written instructions on how to
apply the scale are adequate.
In conclusion, our data suggest that the Brazilian Portuguese version of the EAMI is a valid and reliable instrument for the assessment of autobiographical episodic memory, and may be a useful tool in the evaluation of amnestic syndromes, notably those of hippocampal origin.
References
-
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» https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.4.385 -
2Baddeley AD, Warrington EK. Amnesia and the distinction between long- and short-term memory. J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav. 1970;9(2):176-89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80048-2
» https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80048-2 -
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Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
Aug 2015
History
-
Received
26 Nov 2014 -
Received
15 Feb 2015 -
Accepted
06 Mar 2015