Abstracts
This research reports the terrestrial slug Meghimatium pictum (Stoliczka, 1873) (Stylommathophora: Philomycidae) as an agricultural pest for the first time in Southern Brazil vineyards. The species was found in densities exceeding 20 slugs.m-2 in Vitis labrusca L. vineyards at six municipalities of the Southern Brazil's viticulture region. It causes damage a loss by leaving residual mucus on grapes and by consuming grapes already perforated by other organisms, such as insects or birds, or mechanically damaged by in situ compression. The effectiveness of iron phosphate and metaldehyde baits on M. pictum was evaluated in laboratory experiments. Iron phosphate bait was more effective in controlling M. pictum (70%) than metaldehyde bait (15%)
terrestrial slug; grapevine pest; iron phosphate; metaldehyde
O presente trabalho relata pela primeira vez a lesma terrestre Meghimatium pictum (Stoliczka, 1873) (Stylommathophora: Philomycidae) como uma praga agrícola causando danos em vinhedos no Sul do Brasil. Esta espécie foi encontrada em densidades superiores a 20 lesmas.m-2 danificando uvas da espécie Vitis labrusca L. em seis municípios da região vitícola do Sul do Brasil. O impacto econômico causado por M. pictum está associado ao movimento dos espécimes no dossel da videira e nas uvas, provocando a contaminação residual por muco e o consumo de uvas já perfuradas por outros organismos, tais como insetos ou aves, ou mecanicamente danificadas pela compressão in situ. A eficácia das iscas a base de fosfato de ferro e metaldeído sobre M. pictum também foi avaliada em condições de laboratório. A isca a base de fosfato de ferro foi mais eficiente no controle de M. pictum (70%) do que a isca a base de metaldeído (15%)
lesma terrestre; praga da videira; fosfato de ferro; metaldeído
INTRODUCTION:
Many terrestrial gastropods species (slugs and snails) are considered major agricultural
pests, attacking numerous crops species. The number of pest mollusks has increased
during the twentieth century due to the introduction of new crops, intensification of
agricultural production and accidental introduction of alien species that have adapted
to modify agricultural environments (GODAN, 1983GODAN, D. Pest slugs and snails. Biology and Control. New York,
Springer-Verlag, 1983, 445p.;
THOMÉ, 1993THOMÉ, J. W. Estado atual da sistemática dos Veronicellidae (Mollusca;
Gastropoda) americanos, com comentários sobre sua importância econômica, ambiental e
na saúde. Biociências, v.1, n.1, p.61-75, 1993. Available in:
<http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbzool/v18n1/v18n1a34.pdf> Access in: May 21st, 2012,
doi: 10.1590/S0101-81752001000100034.
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbzool/v18n1/v1...
; DI STEFANO, 1998DI STEFANO, J. G. Lesmas no plantio direto no cerrado. Direto no
Cerrado, v.7, p.8-9, 1998.; ROBINSON, 1999ROBINSON, D. G. Alien invasions: The effects of the global economy on
non-marine gastropod introductions into the United States. Malacologia, v.41, n.2,
p.413-438, 1999.;
BARKER, 2002BARKER, G. M. Molluscs as Crop Pests. CABI Publishing, Wallingford,
2002, 450p.; BARKER, 2002BARKER, G. M. Molluscs as Crop Pests. CABI Publishing, Wallingford,
2002, 450p.; COWIE et al., 2009COWIE, R. H. et al. Alien non-marine snails and slugs of priority
quarantine importance in the United States: A preliminary risk assessment. American
Malacological Bulletin, v.27, n.1-2, p.113-132, 2009. Available in:
<http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.4003/006.027.0210> Access in: July 26th,
2012. doi: 10.4003/006.027.0210.
http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.4003/00...
).
This has led to an increased focus on agricultural malacology.
Meghimatium pictum (Stoliczka, 1873) (Stylommathophora:
Philomycidae) is a terrestrial slug native to China, Taiwan, Malaysia,
and probably India (WIKTOR et al., 2000WIKTOR, A. et al. Stylommatophoran slugs from China (Gastropoda:
Pulmonata). Prodromus. Folia Malacologica, v.8, n.1, p.3-35, 2000.). In
recent years it has been reported from southern and southeastern Brazil (GOMES et al.,
2011) and northeast Argentina (GREGORIC et al.,
2013GREGORIC, D. E. G. et al. First Record of four exotic slugs in
Argentina. American Malagological Bulletin, v.31, n.2, p.1-12, 2013.). According to GOMES et al.
(2011)GOMES, S. R. et al. A newly introduced and invasive land slug in Brazil:
Meghimatium pictum (Gastropoda, Philomycidae) from China. Proceedings of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, v.161, n.1, p.87-95, 2011. Available in:
<http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1635/053.161.0106> Access in: July 13rd,
2012. doi: 10.1635/053.161.0106.
http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1635/05...
, in urban regions of Brazil individuals are usually found in wastelands
within peripheral areas under fallen trunks, limbs, stones or garbage. In relatively
undisturbed forests, they are found on woody stems, inside hollow trunks or near or
under bryophytes. They were generally found in humid and dark places, buried or
underneath various objects. Some specimens were found up to 1.5m above ground level in
Paraná state.
GOMES et al. (2011)GOMES, S. R. et al. A newly introduced and invasive land slug in Brazil:
Meghimatium pictum (Gastropoda, Philomycidae) from China. Proceedings of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, v.161, n.1, p.87-95, 2011. Available in:
<http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1635/053.161.0106> Access in: July 13rd,
2012. doi: 10.1635/053.161.0106.
http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1635/05...
recorded M.
pictum infesting plants in private kitchen gardens in the state of Santa
Catarina and also to invade several protected areas in Paraná. GREGORIC et al. (2013)GREGORIC, D. E. G. et al. First Record of four exotic slugs in
Argentina. American Malagological Bulletin, v.31, n.2, p.1-12, 2013. recorded one specimen of M.
pictum in a garden with orchids collected from the province of Misiones and
other plants acquired from nurseries in the Tucumán province. However, there were no
records of serious damage or observable effects on native species so far. This study is
the first to report this species as an agricultural pest causing significant economic
losses in commercial Vitis labrusca L. vineyards in several municipalities
of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil. The effectiveness of baits containing iron
phosphate and metaldehyde as control for M. pictum was evaluated under
laboratory conditions.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
Observations of the damage caused by M. pictum were made during visits to vineyards in Antônio Prado, Nova Pádua, Bento Gonçalves, Farroupilha, Garibaldi and Caxias do Sul, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Levels of infestation were estimated based on the number of specimens.m-2.
For species identification specimens were collected on the field and dissected in the
laboratory using a stereomicroscope to enable the evaluation of diagnostic features, as
well as comparisons with specialized literature (TSAI et
al., 2005TSAI, C. L. et al. Comparison of four philomycid slugs (Gastropoda:
Stylommatophora: Philomycidae) of Taiwan. Endemic Species Research, v.7, p.41-49,
2005.; GOMES et al.,
2011GOMES, S. R. et al. A newly introduced and invasive land slug in Brazil:
Meghimatium pictum (Gastropoda, Philomycidae) from China. Proceedings of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, v.161, n.1, p.87-95, 2011. Available in:
<http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1635/053.161.0106> Access in: July 13rd,
2012. doi: 10.1635/053.161.0106.
http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1635/05...
). Voucher specimens were deposited at the United States Department of
Agriculture National Malacology Laboratory collection in Philadelphia (USDA 110437).
To test the effectiveness of an iron phosphate and a metaldehyde bait on M.
pictum in laboratory experiments, specimens of several sizes were collected in
vineyards located in Antônio Prado and stored in 500mL plastic containers. Each
container was filled with approximately one centimeter of damp soil in order to maintain
humidity and replicate the slug's natural environment, thus avoiding dehydration.
Temperature and relative air humidity were constant during bioassays (25±1°C and 55±5%,
respectively), with a photophase of 14h. The following treatments were used: T1 - 0.5g
Metarex SP(r) (5% a.i. metaldehyde) - De Sangosse Agroquímica Ltda
manufacturer; T2 - 0.5g Ferramol(r) (1% a.i. iron phosphate) - W. Neudorff
Serviços de Agricultura do Brasil Ltda manufacturer (BIO
CONTROLE, 2011BIO CONTROLE. Ferramol. Available in:
<http://www.biocontrole.com.br> Access in November 30, 2011.
http://www.biocontrole.com.br...
); and T3 - control. The experimental design was completely
randomized with six replicates (plastic containers) that included five slugs each. Both
baits used a starch-based attractive ingredient. Specimens were selected and distributed
in order to obtain similar sizes for each replicate. Containers with one gram of cattle
feed (crushed and roasted corn and soybeans) were added to all treatments and replicates
as alternative food sources. All replicates were evaluated after 24, 48, 72, 96, 120,
144 and 168 HAI (Hours After Installation). The bait was considered effective if it
attracted and killed the slugs. Treatment averages were compared by the Tukey test with
a 5% error probability rate (P<0.05), using the SAS(r) software (SAS INSTITUTE, 2000SAS INSTITUTE. Statistical Analysis System: getting started with the SAS
learning. Cary, SAS Institute Inc., 2000. 81p.).
RESULTS:
An analysis of the reproductive system and external characteristics confirmed the species as M. pictum. The species was recorded to cause losses during the harvest season of Niagara and Bordô grapevines (V. labrusca) in Antônio Prado, Nova Pádua, Bento Gonçalves, Farroupilha, Garibaldi and Caxias do Sul. Qualitative loss caused by M. pictum has been observed over the past three years, mainly during grape harvesting season (December to March), and also during the grape production period in the municipalities of Antônio Prado and Garibaldi. The slugs feed on the pulp of fruit that are pre-damaged by other organisms, such as insects and birds, or on grapes mechanically damaged by hail or compression (Figure 1 A-B). Also, they leave trails of secretion while moving towards and across grape clusters. They are mainly active at night but also during daytime after rainfall.
: Slugs feeding on grapes (A-B) and examples of environments within grapevines were slugs are found (C-D), in Bento Gonçalves, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
At daytime they were found under stones, wood and the ground-cover of dead vegetation, often used in the Southern Brazil's vineyards (Figure 1 D). Cover crops gradually release nutrients as they decay, protecting the soil against erosion and stabilize its temperature and humidity. These protectional layers are generally made from cut or naturaly crop residues of vetch, oats, rye grass and clover after harvesting. A trellis system is used that provides constant shading in the interior of the vineyard, to prevent solar radiation from reaching most of the soil surface (Figure 1 C). These areas showed higher levels of infestation. In an area of 4.3 hectares in Caxias do Sul, average slug density reached 20 individuals.m-2. In a smaller area in Antônio Prado, with less mulch on the soil surface and poor vegetation cover, lower densities were found with an approximate average of five specimens.m-2. Slugs were also found in storage boxes used during harvest, mainly in boxes kept in the vineyards overnight.
Specimens were not attracted to metaldehyde bait after 24 HAI, and mainly consumed the alternative food source of cattle feed. This did not change during subsequent evaluations for this treatment. Iron phosphate baits were highly attractive to specimens and were consumed entirely, suggesting that snails preferred this bait to the alternative food source. In the first two evaluations, at 24 and 48 HAI, none of the two treatments was lethal to M. pictum. At 72 HAI mortality rates of 6.7% and 13.3% were observed for metaldehyde and iron phosphate treatments, respectively (Figure 2).
: Average mortality (%) of Meghimatium pictum with different molluscicides baits in laboratory test (T: 25±2ºC, Relative Humidity: 55±5%; Photophase: 14h). * Means followed by the same letter did not significantly differ from each other (Tukey test, P <.05).
After 120 HAI the mortality rate in the iron phosphate treatment was 53.3%, whereas the metaldehyde treatment did not effectively control slugs, with a mortality rate of only 10% (Figure 2). In the final evaluation, at 168 HAI, the mortality rate in the metaldehyde treatment (Metarex SP(r)) remained below 15%, but increased to 70% in the iron phosphate treatment (Ferramol(r)) which proved to control M. pictum more effectively.
DISCUSSION:
This is the first record of M. pictum as an agricultural pest, damaging
agricultural crops in Southern Brazil. Infestation causes losses that significantly
affect vineyards in the region with the largest Brazilian grape producers for in
natura consumption, processed juice and vinification. Grapevine cultures
cover approximately 82,000 ha in Brazil, mostly in the States of Santa Catarina, Paraná
and Rio Grande do Sul, the latter being the main grape growing area for processed
products (MELLO, 2011MELLO, L. M. R. DE. Vitivinicultura Brasileira: Panorama 2010. Artigos
Técnicos. EMBRAPA/CNPUV, Bento Gonçalves, 2011. Available in:
<http://www.cnpuv.embrapa.br/publica/artigos/prodvit2010[1].pdf>. Access in
March 21, 2011.
http://www.cnpuv.embrapa.br/publica/arti...
). GODAN (1983)GODAN, D. Pest slugs and snails. Biology and Control. New York,
Springer-Verlag, 1983, 445p. recorded two species of slugs as grapevines pests:
Deroceras reticulatum (Müller, 1774) and Deroceras
agreste (Linnaeus, 1758) (Agriolimacidae) and four
species of snails: Cepaea hortensis (Müller, 1774),
Cepaea memoralis (Linnaeus, 1758), Helix aspersa
(Müller, 1774) (= Cornu aspersum) and Helix
pomatia (Linnaeus, 1758) (Helicidae). More recently, CHANG (2002)
also recorded Bradybaena similaris (Férussac, 1822)
(Bradybaenidae) to attack vines in Taiwan. SANDERSON & SIRGEL
(2002) mention that the introduced helicids Cantareus aspersus (Müller,
1774) (= Cornu aspersum) and Theba pisana (Müller, 1774)
(Helicidae) can also reach pest status in South African viticultural
regions. All these families are members of the order Stylommathophora (THOMÉ et al., 2006THOMÉ, J. W. et al. Os caracóis e as lesmas dos nossos bosques e
jardins. Pelotas: USEB, 2006. 123p. ).
The presence of M. pictum impairs in natura grape sales,
as well as the quality of wine and juice. The slugs cause losses by feeding on
previously perforated or damaged grapes, leaving residual mucus, which affects consumer
acceptance. American agricultural inspectors have found this species mainly on mushrooms
shipments from China (GOMES et al., 2011GOMES, S. R. et al. A newly introduced and invasive land slug in Brazil:
Meghimatium pictum (Gastropoda, Philomycidae) from China. Proceedings of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, v.161, n.1, p.87-95, 2011. Available in:
<http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1635/053.161.0106> Access in: July 13rd,
2012. doi: 10.1635/053.161.0106.
http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1635/05...
). It is
possible that slugs are initially attracted by the natural yeast on grape surfaces.
SANDERSON & SIRGEL (2002)SANDERSON, G.; SIRGEL, W. Helicidae as pests in Australian and South
African grapevines. p. 255-270. In.: Barker, G. M. (Ed.). Molluscs as crop
pestsWallingford, CABI Publishing, 2002. 450 p. mention that
the juveniles of C. aspersum and T. pisana feed on developing
foliage during spring. Additionally, during humid evenings in spring and early summer,
active slugs leave mucus trails on developing grapes, impacting their aesthetic
appearance and rendering table grapes unsuitable for export markets.
Injury caused by M. pictum usually occurs during the grape harvest period between December and March, although some qualitative loss could be detected during the production period as well (Garibaldi). According to CHANG (2002)CHANG, C. Bradybaena similaris (de Férussac) (Bradybaenidae) as a pest in grapevines of Taiwan. In.: BARKER, G.M. (Ed.). Molluscs as crop pests. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, 2002, p.241-245., B. similaris can destroy leaf and buds, and may also be responsible for defoliation (especially of new leaves), flower and fruit spoilage. Similar to M. pictum, numbers and feeding activities of this species on the vines are higher in the warmest and wettest months (May to September) (CHANG, 1988CHANG, C. P. The occurrence and control of Bradybaena similaris (Férussac). Bulletin of Taichung District Agricultural Improvement Station, v.21, n.1, p.1-2, 1988. ) and during the vines' growth and fruiting period. The level of infestation was higher in areas with cover crops inside vineyards that provide perfect humidity and shading conditions in an environment with high food availability. According to SANDERSON & SIRGEL (2002)SANDERSON, G.; SIRGEL, W. Helicidae as pests in Australian and South African grapevines. p. 255-270. In.: Barker, G. M. (Ed.). Molluscs as crop pestsWallingford, CABI Publishing, 2002. 450 p. mollusks infestations on vines primarily occur when gastropod populations on the ground are disturbed by vineyard management practices, such as ground cover cultivation or mowing.. They also comment that during the late 1980s there was a significant increase in the emergence of gastropods as viticultural pests in Australia, associated with changes in soil-management practices, especially tillage reductions, improved irrigation and use of ground-cover and mulches.
The iron phosphate (T2) baits were not lethal to mollusks during the two first
evaluations (24 and 48 HAI). This may be related to the mode of action of the active
ingredients: iron phosphate acts as a feeding inhibitor, making slugs slower, hardening
their epidermis, and leading to death in three to six days after ingestion (IGLESIAS & SPEISER, 2001IGLESIAS, J.; SPEISER, B. Consumption rate and susceptibility to
parasitic nematodes and chemical molluscicides of the pest slugs Arion hortensis s.
s. and A. distinctus. Anzeiger fuer Schaedlingskund, v.74, n.6, p.159-166, 2001.
Available in
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1439-0280.2001.d01-5.x/pdf>
Access in: July 22nd, 2012. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0280.2001.d01-5.x.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.10...
; SPEISER & KISTLER, 2002SPEISER, B.; KISTLER, C. Field tests with a molluscicide containing iron
phosphate. Crop Protectionv.21, n.5, p.389-394, 2002. Available in:
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219409000969#> Access
in: May 21st, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art...
; MENDES, 2008MENDES, A. G. Controle de lesmas e caracóis. Revista Cultivar, v.47,
p.14, 2008.). Similarly, the metaldehyde was not
lethal for slugs in the first 24 hours, although metaldehyde causes rapid dehydration in
mollusks. Low consumption might have influenced mortality. Metaldehyde baits were the
mainstay of terrestrial gastropod chemical control before the introduction of
carbamate-based baits in the 1950s. However, the application of these two types of
molluscicides results in environmental problems, since both are toxic for vertebrates
(HOMEIDA & COOKE, 1982HOMEIDA, A. M.; COOKE, R. G. Pharmacological aspects of metaldehyde
poisoning in mice. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, v.5, n.1,
p.77-82, 1982. Available in:
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2885.1982.tb00500.x/abstract>
Access in: July 17th, 2012. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.1982.tb00500.x.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11...
; FLETCHER et al., 1991, 1994FLETCHER, M. R. et al. Pesticide Poisoning of Animals 1990. London, MAFF
Publications, 1991, 30p.). The need to apply
higher doses of these products (from 20 to 40kg.ha-1 baits in a single year)
also makes their use impracticable on open fields (CHIARADIA, 2001CHIARADIA, L. A. Avaliação de iscas moluscicidas no controle de
Sarasinula linguaeformis (Semper, 1885). In.: Reunião Técnica Catarinense de Milho e
Feijão. Epagri, Chapecó, 2001. p.71-75.; QUINTELA, 2002QUINTELA, E. D. Manejo de Lesmas. Revista Cultivarv.38, p.26-28,
2002.).
Although more expensive, iron phosphate (Ferramol(r), Neudorff GmbH, Germany)
is a new control option less aggressive and toxic to the environment (EPA, 2011) and is
used in many European countries (SPEISER et al.,
2001SPEISER, B.; KISTLER, C. Field tests with a molluscicide containing iron
phosphate. Crop Protectionv.21, n.5, p.389-394, 2002. Available in:
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219409000969#> Access
in: May 21st, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art...
).
Attractiveness of molluscicide baits and control potential for different species may
vary depending on the active ingredient and the age of the mollusks (GODAN, 1983GODAN, D. Pest slugs and snails. Biology and Control. New York,
Springer-Verlag, 1983, 445p.; PORT
& PORT, 1986PORT, C. M.; PORT, G. The biology and behavior of slugs in relation to
crop damage and control. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, v.1, p.255-299,
1986.; RAE et al.,
2009RAE, R. G. et al. Optimization of biological (Phasmarhabditis
hermaphrodita) and chemical (iron phosphate and metaldehyde) slug control. Crop
Protection, v.28, n.9, p.765-773, 2009. Available in:
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219409000969> Access in:
May 21st, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2009.04.005.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art...
). RAE et al. (2009)RAE, R. G. et al. Optimization of biological (Phasmarhabditis
hermaphrodita) and chemical (iron phosphate and metaldehyde) slug control. Crop
Protection, v.28, n.9, p.765-773, 2009. Available in:
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219409000969> Access in:
May 21st, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2009.04.005.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art...
observed that
baits containing iron phosphate were efficient in controlling two slug species in
Ukraine (D. reticulatum and Arion ater (Linnaeus, 1758)
(Stylommathophora: Arionidae)). They also verified that the efficacy of
baits containing iron phosphate was not different from treatments with baits containing
metaldehyde over the course of the experiment. The results of their study indicate that
adult A. ater specimens can be successfully controlled by recommended doses
of both molluscicides. Evaluating the protective effect of baits containing iron
phosphate and metaldehyde, RAE et al. (2009)RAE, R. G. et al. Optimization of biological (Phasmarhabditis
hermaphrodita) and chemical (iron phosphate and metaldehyde) slug control. Crop
Protection, v.28, n.9, p.765-773, 2009. Available in:
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219409000969> Access in:
May 21st, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2009.04.005.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art...
found that both products provide a high protection level for Chinese cabbage saplings
against A. ater and D. reticulatum. Baits containing iron
phosphate reduced lettuce damage, but were less efficient than baits containing
metaldehyde (SPEISER & KISTLER, 2002SPEISER, B.; KISTLER, C. Field tests with a molluscicide containing iron
phosphate. Crop Protectionv.21, n.5, p.389-394, 2002. Available in:
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219409000969#> Access
in: May 21st, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art...
).
CONCLUSION:
This paper reports M. pictum as an emerging new pest in Southern Brazil's vineyards and present evidence that the use of baits containing iron phosphate can be an alternative to control this pest, killing 70% of the specimens 168 hours after its application under laboratory conditions.
- BARKER, G. M. Molluscs as Crop Pests. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, 2002, 450p.
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- CHIARADIA, L. A. Avaliação de iscas moluscicidas no controle de Sarasinula linguaeformis (Semper, 1885). In.: Reunião Técnica Catarinense de Milho e Feijão. Epagri, Chapecó, 2001. p.71-75.
- COWIE, R. H. et al. Alien non-marine snails and slugs of priority quarantine importance in the United States: A preliminary risk assessment. American Malacological Bulletin, v.27, n.1-2, p.113-132, 2009. Available in: <http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.4003/006.027.0210> Access in: July 26th, 2012. doi: 10.4003/006.027.0210.
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- ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). Iron (ferric) phosphate. Office of Pesticides Program fact sheet. Available in: <http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides/ingredients/factsheets/factsheet_034903.htm> Access in: May 23rd, 2011.
» http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides/ingredients/factsheets/factsheet_034903.htm - FLETCHER, M. R. et al. Pesticide Poisoning of Animals 1990. London, MAFF Publications, 1991, 30p.
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Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
Oct 2014
History
-
Received
16 Apr 2013 -
Accepted
17 Mar 2014