Soils Developed on Geomorphic Surfaces in the Mountain Region of the State of Rio de Janeiro

ABSTRACT:

The evaluation of soils in representative landscapes constitutes an opportunity to evaluate spatial distribution, discuss formation processes, and apply this knowledge to land use and management. In this sense, from the perspective of an environmentally diversified region, the aim of the present study is to evaluate the occurrence and understand the formation of soils in different geomorphic surfaces of a landscape from a mountain region in the state of Rio de Janeiro. The study was developed in the Pito Aceso microbasin in the municipality of Bom Jardim, composed of narrow valleys and a rugged mountain domain, with elevation between 640 and 1,270 m. In a representative landscape, the geomorphic surfaces were obtained from the slope segments and flow lines. On the geomorphic surfaces, soil profiles were described by their morphological properties, collected, and analyzed to describe the chemical and physical properties of each horizon. Geomorphological aspects and possible variations of the parent material directly affected pedogenesis and led to distinct soil classes in the landscape. Variation in the geomorphic surfaces directs the processes for soil formation under current conditions, as well as the preservation of polygenetic soils. Soils of lower development and with greater participation of the exchangeable cations were identified at the summit (talus deposit) (Neossolo Litólico and Cambissolo Húmico) and toeslope (colluvial-alluvial) (Neossolo Flúvico), whereas more developed soils with lower nutrient content occur in the concave (Argissolos Vermelho and Amarelo) and convex (Latossolo Amarelo) backslope, except for the Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo in the shoulder, which had high exchangeable cations contents.

Keywords:
soil classes; soil-landscape relationship; pedogenetic development

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture in the mountainous region of the state of Rio de Janeiro is developed in all parts of the landscape, where the topographical features of mountainous relief associated with intense rainfall impel erosive processes, intensifying soil losses and sediment transport to water courses (Mendes, 2006). In this region, technological levels and cropping intensity vary substantially, promoting different ways to evaluate soil and different implications for conservation or degradation.

Knowledge of soil at different levels of detail and soil dynamics is necessary due to the importance of soil in the environment as a provider of services in water quantity and quality, carbon storage, nutrient cycling, biodiversity, vegetation support, or as an agricultural production factor for land use and management planning. The basic unit of study is the soil genesis environment, the pedoenvironment, which provides for analysis of soil formation and dynamics, as well as landscape evolution. In addition, these evaluations can be related to soil surveys, allowing the lack of information and mapping in various scales of detail to be improved.

The examination of soil profiles and characterization in a representative landscape are taken as a unit for making inferences regarding soil genesis, which can be carried out by evaluation of the soil-landscape relationship. In this evaluation, the occurrence of soils is the basis of landscape segmentation into geomorphic surfaces, which is obtained mainly by the combination of the slope elements and form, characterizing the pedoenvironment. Daniels et al. (1971) refer to geomorphic surfaces as a landscape portion defined in time and space, containing geographical limits modeled by environmental components. According to the conceptual model proposed by Ruhe (1956), the interaction of slope segments and the environment explains soil diversity. Additionally, Hugget (1975) shows that the relief forms from water flow models make for variations in soil characteristics and properties in different landscape segments.

Basically, pedogenetic models and theories express the influence of the processes involved in soil differentiation, which can be observed in the morphology, chemical, physical, and mineralogical properties. Regarding processes, they denote the arrangement and extent of the formation factors, such as relief, parent material, climate, and biota, all acting in a certain period of time. The first concept of formation factors was made by Vasilii Vasilevich Dokuchaev (Dokuchaev, 1967) and complemented by Hans Jenny (Jenny, 1941) in proposing the equation model for soil formation, which is known as the factorial-functional or mental-theoretical model (Lepsch, 2010; Kämpf and Curi, 2012a).

The application of the concepts presented is reported in the studies of Silva and Vidal-Torrado (1999), Cooper and Vidal-Torrado (2000), Nunes et al. (2001), Figueiredo et al. (2004), Lima et al. (2006), Moreau et al. (2006), Silva et al. (2007), Corrêa et al. (2008), Almeida et al. (2009), Clemente et al. (2009), Campos et al. (2007, 2010, 2011, 2012), Cooper et al. (2010), Pereira et al. (2013), Martins and Rosolen (2014), Rodolfo Júnior et al. (2015), aiming to elucidate the occurrence and formation of soil based on evaluation of the soil-landscape relationship in Brazil. Notably, there are few studies concerning the soil-landscape relationship in the mountain region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, such as the study of Calderano Filho et al. (2010).

In this context, the hypothesis is that the soils genesis would be differentiated along of the geomorphic surfaces and landscape positions. In order to increase the knowledge of the soil distribution and soils genesis in an environmentally diversified region, the aim of the present study is to evaluate the occurrence and understand the formation of soil on different geomorphic surfaces of a landscape in a mountainous region of the state of Rio de Janeiro.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted in the Pito Aceso microbasin in the municipality of Bom Jardim, a mountainous region in the state of Rio de Janeiro (RJ) (Figure 1). The regional geomorphology comprises the coastal massifs of the Serra dos Órgãos Plateau, with the predominance of high hills, mountains, and small mountain alignments (Matos et al., 1980; Dantas, 2001). In the Pito Aceso microbasin, the topography is marked by narrow valleys, slopes of differentiated altitudes, and rugged relief, with elevation between 640 and 1,270 m.

Figure 1
Location of the area studied in the Pito Aceso microbasin, Municipality of Bom Jardim, State of Rio de Janeiro (RJ).

The lithology consists of rocks from the Rio Negro complex (orthogneisses and migmatites) (Matos et al., 1980). The parent material comprises the product of alteration of the rocks mentioned, as well as colluviums transported in different phases (Calderano Filho et al., 2010). In the lowland, the material is composed of sandy clay sediments, comprising different alluvial and colluvial deposits.

The climate of the region, according to Köppen classification system, is Cwa, which means dry winter and rainy summer, defined as subtropical, with winter temperatures below 18 °C and summer temperatures above 22 °C. Average annual temperature is 20.3 °C and average annual rainfall is about 1,350 mm (Carvalho Júnior et al., 2013). The primary vegetation is Overgreen Rainforest, equivalent to Dense Ombrophylous Forest, with large tree species and dense formation (Dantas, 2001).

The selected landscape was compartmentalized by the slope segments (Ruhe, 1960) and flow lines - curvature and profile (Hugget, 1975). From this combination, points were established for opening pits for soil profiles and then morphology was described and each horizon was sampled (Santos et al., 2013a). Based on morphological properties and chemical and physical properties, the soils were classified according to the Brazilian Soil Classification System (Santos et al., 2013b).

For laboratory analyses, the samples of each horizon were dried in an oven at 50 °C and sieved in a 2 mm mesh, obtaining fine soil. Physical analyses (particle size analysis - coarse sand, fine sand, silt, and clay) and chemical analyses (pH, sorption complex - Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, Al³⁺, and H⁺, organic carbon, sulfuric acid digestion, and selective extraction of iron by ammonium oxalate acid and dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate) were performed in the fine earth according to the methods described in Donagema et al. (2011). Chemical fractionation of the organic matter was carried out by the technique of differential solubility in basic and acidic solutions, obtaining the organic carbon content in the humic fractions: fulvic acids, humic acids, and humin (Benites et al., 2003).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Evaluation of the landscape by its structural components shows significant variations as to slope segments, flow lines, relief forms, declivity, and altitude, which were jointly defined as distinct pedoenvironments (Table 1, Figure 2). In general, in each soil profile expressive differences are highlighted mainly by the depth, thickness, and color of the surface and subsurface horizons (Figure 2), which causes the occurrence of different diagnostic horizons, the surface A húmico (P1, P2, and P5), A prominant (P3, P4, and P7), and A moderado (P6) horizons, whereas the subsurface horizons were B incipient, B textural, and B latossólico (Table 1). From these variations in diagnostic horizons and other characteristics, and the properties of each profile, the soil classes were Neossolos, Cambissolos, Argissolos, and Latossolos (Table 1), which correspond to the Entisols, Inceptisols, Ultisols, and Oxisols, respectively, according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).

Table 1
Soil classifcation and landscape characterization in the Pito Aceso basin, municipality of Bom Jardim (RJ)

Profile	Soil classification(1)	Diagnostic horizon	Slope segment(2)	Flow lines(3)	Slope	Altitude
					%	m
P1	Neossolo Litólico Húmico típico	A húmico	Summit (talus deposit)	Convex/Linear	65	1,042
P2	Cambissolo Húmico Distrófico típico	A húmico B incipiente	Summit (talus deposit)	Convex/Linear	43	1,010
P3	Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo Eutrófico úmbrico	A proeminente B textural	Shoulder	Concave/Linear	26	917
P4	Argissolo Vermelho Distrófico úmbrico	A proeminente B textural	Backslope	Concave/Linear	42	780
P5	Latossolo Amarelo Distrófico húmico	A húmico B latossólico	Backslope	Convex/Convex	30	745
P6	Argissolo Amarelo Distrófico abrúptico	A moderado B textural	Backslope	Concave/Linear	34	693
P7	Neossolo Flúvico Tb Distroúmbrico gleissólico	A proeminente	Toeslope (colluvial-alluvial)	Linear/ Linear	3	686

• ⁽¹⁾
  Santos et al. (2013b).
• ⁽²⁾
  Ruhe (1960).
• ⁽³⁾
  Hugget (1975).

Figure 2
Schematic drawing of landscape and arrangement of soil profiles. Flow of the slope represented by dotted lines and landscape structure by solid lines. P1: Neossolo Litólico; P2: Cambissolo Húmico; P3: Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo; P4: Argissolo Vermelho; P5: Latossolo Amarelo; P6: Argissolo Amarelo; and P7: Neossolo Flúvico.

The soils with more pedogenetic evolution were identified by the sequence of horizons A-Bt or A-Bt-Bw (Argissolos - P3, P4, and P6), and they occupy the shoulder and concave backslope, whereas in the A-Bw sequence (Latossolo - P5) they are in the convex backslope (Table 1, Figure 2). In contrary conditions, soils with the lowest pedogenetic evolution occur at the summit (talus deposit), with the sequence of horizons A-R (Neossolo Litólico - P1) or A-Bi (Cambissolo - P2), and toeslope, with the horizon sequence A-C-Cg (Neossolo Flúvico - P7) (Table 2).

Table 2
Morphological properties and organic carbon of the soils from the Pito Aceso basin, municipality of Bom Jardim (RJ)

Hor(1)	Depth	Texture	Structure	Color	OC
	m			moist	g kg-1
P1 - Neossolo Litólico Húmico típico
Ap	0.00-0.40	sandy loam lr.	st. sm. and vsm. gra.	10YR 2/1	76.2
R	0.40+
P2 - Cambissolo Húmico Distrófico típico
Ap	0.00-0.33	clay loam	st. vsm. and sm. gra.	10YR 2/1	37.6
A1	0.33-1.00	sand clay	st. vsm. and sm. gra.	10YR 2/1	28.4
A2	1.00-1.10	sand clay	st. vsm. and sm. gra.	10YR 2/2	18.3
AB	1.10-1.25	sand clay	wk. sm. and med. sab.	7.5YR 3/2	13.5
Bi	1.25-1.50+	clay loam	wk. sm. and med. sab.	5YR 4/4	8.8
P3 - Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo Eutrófico úmbrico
Ap	0.00-0.27	sandy clay loam	mo. med. and lg. gra.	5YR 3/1	16.8
AB	0.27-0.43	sandy clay loam	mo. med. sab.	5YR 3/2	12.9
BA	0.43-0.63	sand clay	mo. med. sab.	5YR 3/4	9.2
Bt1	0.63-0.80	sand clay	mo. sm. and med. sab. and ab.	5YR 3/4	7.0
Bt2	0.80-1.20	clay	mo. med. sab. and ab.	5YR 4/4	4.9
BC	1.20-1.50+	sand clay	wk. sm. and med. sab. and ab.	5YR 3/4	4.3
P4 - Argissolo Vermelho Distrófico úmbrico
Ap	0.00-0.48	sandy clay loam	mo. sm. and med. gra.	5YR 3/3	11.8
BA	0.48-0.75	sand clay	mo. med. sab.	3.5YR 3/4	7.0
Bt1	0.75-0.95	clay	mo. med. sab.	2.5YR 3/3	10.1
Bt2	0.95-1.10	clay	mo. med. sab.	2.5YR 3/4	8.4
Bt3	1.10-1.33	very clayey	mo. med. sab.	2.5YR 4/5	6.4
Bw	1.33-1.80+	clay	wk. sm. and med. sab.	2.5YR 4/7	5.4
P5 - Latossolo Amarelo Distrófico húmico
Ap	0.00-0.20	clay	mo. sm. and med. gra.	7.5YR 3/2	17.2
A1	0.20-0.38	clay	mod. sm. and med. gra.	7.5YR 3/3	15.8
A2	0.38-0.61	clay	st. sm. gra.	7.5YR 2.5/2	17.2
AB	0.61-0.85	clay	wk. med. sab.	10YR 3/3	10.9
BA	0.85-1.05	clay	wk. med. sab.	10YR 4/6	7.3
Bw1	1.05-1.47	clay	wk. med. sab.	10YR 5/8	4.9
Bw2	1.47-1.80+	clay	wk. med. sab. that is undone st. vsm. gra.	8.5YR 6/8	3.5
P6 - Argissolo Amarelo Distrófico abrúptico
Ap	0.00-0.26	sandy clay loam	mo. sm. and med. gra. and wk. sm. and med. sab.	7.5YR 4/4	9.9
A	0.26-0.40	sandy loam	wk. sm. and med. sab.	10YR 4/4	7.3
AB	0.40-0.62	sandy loam	wk. sm. and med. sab.	10YR 4/6	3.7
Bt1	0.62-1.04	clay	mo. med. sab.	7.5YR 4/4	6.0
Bt2	1.04-1.60+	clay	mo. sm. and med. sab.	7.5YR 5/8	4.5
P7 - Neossolo Flúvico Tb Distroúmbrico gleissólico
Ap	0.00-0.25	sandy clay loam	mo. med. and gr gra.	10YR 3/3	11.5
C	0.25-0.63	sandy clay loam	wk. sm. and med. sab.	10YR 5/6	3.5
Cg	0.63-1.00+	sandy clay loam	massive	7.5YR 6/2	3.6

• ⁽¹⁾
  Horizon. wk.: weak; mo.: moderate; st.: strong; vsm.: very small; sm.: small; med.: medium; lg.: large; gra.: granular; ab.: angular blocky; sab.: subangular blocky; lr.: little rubble; OC: organic carbon. Other conventions: p = tillage or other disturbance (disturbance by mechanical means, pasturing, or other modifcations by human uses); t = accumulation of clay (clay formed within a horizon and subsequently translocated within the horizon or that has been moved into the horizon by illuviation, or both); w = intensive alteration (designation for the mineral material with an advanced stage of weathering, low clay activity, granular structure, or moderately blocky, and no clay or organic matter accumulation); g = gleying (iron reduced and removed during soil formation or that saturation through stagnant water that could be observed by gray, bluish, greenish or mottling colors resulting from the mobilization of iron or manganese with or without segregation). All designations are according to Brazilian recommendations from the Field Soil Description and Sampling Manual (Santos et al., 2013b).

The curvature considerably influences the lateral distribution of the pedological, hydrological, and geomorphic processes and, therefore, the soils that result from interactions among these processes (Pennock et al., 1987). The influence on soil properties has mainly been related to the concave and convex flow lines that control the distribution of water and soluble materials from the highest to the lowest part of the landscape. Thus, there is a close relationship between curvature and the occurrence of soil classes. In this case, the deepest soils have small variance in morphological properties and physical and chemical properties along the soil profile, such as the Latossolos that occupy the convex shape, whereas, in the contrary situation, the Cambissolos and Argissolos occur in the concave shape. For the Argissolos, occurrence in these conditions is related to high slope and the convergent water flow on these geomorphic surfaces, which favors morphogenesis (Chagas, 2006).

Variations in soil genesis were evidenced by morphological properties. The thickness of the surface horizons ranged from 0.25 m (P7) to 1.25 m (P2). In the subsurface horizons, the limit is due to the presence of the ground water level in the Neossolo Flúvico (1.00 m) (Table 2). In color expression, a marked characteristic in the surface horizons is the predominance of dark colors, registered by the value and chroma from 1 to 3, except for lighter colors in the P6 profile, value 4 and chroma 4 to 6 (Table 2). For the surface horizons, dark colors mainly reflect the influence of a higher amount of organic matter, and for many horizons this is associated with soil quality. In this context, the smaller thickness and relatively clear color of the Ap and A horizon in the Argissolo Amarelo can be attributed to losses of mineral and organic colloidal material by lateral removal, due to the higher water flow in the lower position of the landscape. In this same soil, in the AB horizon, lighter color can be attributed to the intense translocation of colloidal material, which is corroborated by the lower contents of organic carbon (OC) and clay compared to the Bt1 horizon (Tables 2 and 4).

A decrease in the value and chroma in the A2 horizon in relation to the overlying (A1) and underlying (AB) horizons was observed in the profile with the A húmico horizon, especially in the Latossolo Amarelo (Table 2). This darkening can be attributed in part to the increase in OC contents in this horizon (Table 2) and the higher participation of fulvic and humic acid fractions, which represent 50 % of OC, with predominance of humic acids (26 %) (Table 3). Humic acids impart a dark color to soil due to their intense black color. For the other surface horizons, the influence of these two fractions was lower (<38 %), with humic acid values lower than 15 % (Table 3).

Table 3
Humic fraction contribution to the organic carbon of the soils from the Pito Aceso basin, municipality of Bom Jardim (RJ)

Horizon	C-FAF	C-FAH	C-HUM	C-FAF + C-FAH
	–––––––––––––––––––––––––– % ––––––––––––––––––––––––
P4 - Argissolo Vermelho Distrófico úmbrico
Ap	22.0	28.8	40.7	50.8
BA	37.1	14.3	74.3	51.4
Bt1	29.7	22.8	53.5	52.5
Bt2	31.0	21.4	75.0	52.4
Bt3	37.5	6.3	68.8	43.8
Bw	33.3	9.3	40.7	42.6
P5 - Latossolo Amarelo Distrófico húmico
Ap	12.8	12.8	30.8	25.6
A1	14.6	14.6	29.1	29.2
A2	23.8	25.6	11.0	49.4
AB	14.7	22.9	43.1	37.6
BA	13.7	16.4	61.6	30.1
Bw1	34.7	12.2	34.7	46.9
Bw2	34.3	2.9	71.4	37.2
P6 - Argissolo Amarelo Distrófico abrúptico
Ap	28.3	17.2	37.4	45.5
A	27.4	17.8	37.0	45.2
AB	27.0	16.2	83.8	43.2
Bt1	41.7	10.0	45.0	51.7
Bt2	33.3	4.4	93.3	37.7

• C-FAF: carbon of the fluvic acid fraction; C-FAF: carbon of the humic acid fraction; C-HUM: carbon of the humin. The organic carbon content in the humic fractions was obtained according Benites et al. (2003).

Studies of soils with variations in color in surface horizons and darkening with depth was highlighted in a Latossolo Amarelo with an A humic horizon at the 1st Soil Classification and Correlation Meeting (Embrapa, 1979), as well as observed in other soil profiles with the A horizon described in the same region (Calderano Filho, 2012). In this respect, Calegari (2008) highlights the occurrence of soil profiles with this same pattern of color variation in an A húmico horizon developed in Latossolos from different regions of Brazil.

In the subsurface horizons, the colors ranged from 2.5YR (red) to 10YR (yellow), with values from 3 to 6 and chrome from 4 to 8 (Table 2). The soil color variation can be attributed in part to the chemical and mineralogical composition of the rock, such as varied sources of iron, and/or attributed to the dynamics of iron oxide formation and expression. For free drainage environments, the gradient between the yellow and red color is attributed to the differentiated formation and expression of goethite and hematite. The yellowish color indicates greater expression of goethite, while the reddish color denotes the presence of hematite (Sposito, 1989; Inda Jr et al., 2012; Ribeiro et al., 2012).

The relationship between different parent materials, mainly in regard to their mineralogical composition, and color in the subsurface was highlighted by Santos (2009) in soil profiles from three toposequences in the Paraíba do Sul region, state of Rio de Janeiro. In that study, soils developed from basic materials (basalt and gabbro) had 5YR color in the intermediate part of the profile and 7.5YR in the underground. In contrast, along the toposequence, acidic rocks (muscovite-biotite gneiss) with lower iron contents had a varied color, reddish in the upper and middle thirds (2.5YR, 5YR, and 7.5YR) becoming yellowish in the lower third, where the 7.5YR and 10YR become more evident.

In hydromorphic environments, such as that observed in the Cg2 horizon (Neossolo Flúvico), iron is reduced and, for that reason, the grayish color expresses mixing of predominantly kaolinite mineral and organic matter. The occurrence of mottled indicates iron oxidation in the aeration zones, according to the seasonality of hydromorphism by fluctuation in the ground water level. In the Bt1 and Bt2 horizons in Argissolo Vermelho and Amarelo, a decrease in value and chroma was observed in relation to the overlying horizons, characterizing a slight darkening in soil color. As a differential pattern, these horizons have colloidal organic matter in their morphology as films deposited on the surface of soil aggregates. Meanwhile, in the Argissolo Vermelho, the effect of the substantial humic acid increase in these horizons (black color) is added, around 22 % of the OC, whereas in the Argissolo Amarelo the increase was in fulvic acids (yellow-brown) and about 42 % of OC (Table 3).

In this same line of observation, Oenning (2001), Almeida et al. (2009), Botelho (2011), and Lunardi Neto (2012) report an expressive degree of darkening for the AB, BA, and Bt horizons in soils from the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. The authors highlight the dark horizons related to the occurrence of organic material on the peds surface and the increase in OC, which was attributed to illuviation of colloidal organic matter. In addition, Oenning (2001), Botelho (2011), and Lunardi Neto (2012) discuss the greater participation of humic acids in several soil profiles, thus emphasizing the participation of the humic fraction in the dark color in the subsurface horizons. For the same soils, Almeida et al. (2009) and Botelho (2011) reject the occurrence of a buried A horizon, which was defined by the similarity of sand fractions between the horizons along the soil profile. Regarding deposition of colloidal organic matter, the authors suggest that the organic compounds associated with aluminum and iron may have accumulated as clay-humic complexes during events after the development of the B textural horizon. This darkening concurs with the maximum accumulation of fine clay in the AB and BA subsurface horizons and not with the horizons that exhibit clay accumulation in the profile.

The OC contents in the surface horizons have a large amplitude, from 3.7 to 76.2 g kg^-1, whereas the amplitude in the subsurface horizons is from 3.5 to 10.1 g kg^-1 (Table 2). The observation of a wide range of OC contents along the landscape may be associated with different soil formation conditions, especially for the surface horizons. Considering that the current conditions of humid climate and mountainous relief favor decomposition of the organic material and higher erosion due to surface runoff, the surface horizons with high OC contents have characteristics of “Relictual Soils - Paleosols” (Queiroz Neto and Castro, 1974; Lepsch and Buol, 1988; Buol and Eswaram, 1999; Calegari, 2008). These authors associate relictual soils with a stable landscape, where the cold climate propitious the accumulation of organic matter by the significant decrease in biogeochemical processes, thus the organic matter is preserved through the formation of organomineral complexes. According to Schaetzl and Anderson (2005), under relictual soil conditions, accumulation of large amounts of organic matter on the surface occurred in the past climate, where grass species predominated and a drier climate in the late Pleistocene to medium Holocene (Calegari, 2008).

In association with the previous conditions, the influence of the microclimate with a lower temperature at higher elevations (>1000 m) and the physical protection provided by rock fragments increase preservation of organic matter in the surface horizon of Neossolo Litólico and Cambissolos Húmico through a significant decrease in organic matter decomposition rates. In the case of Neossolo Flúvico, the presence of the A prominent horizon and seasonal hydromorphism lead to a decrease in the decomposition rates of organic matter by biogeochemical processes.

For the other chemical properties, the pH values in water and KCl varied slightly within each soil profile, and the pH in water was higher than 5.4 in all the horizons of Cambissolo and Argissolos Vermelho-Amarelo and Amarelo (Table 4). The lower values for pH in KCl compared to pH in water give a negative ΔpH and express the predominance of negative charges, giving the soils cation exchange capacity. Together with this observation, there is a gradient in the soil profile and through the landscape of the exchangeable cations. The sum of exchangeable bases (SB) decreases from the summit to the toeslope, as well as at depth; it varies from 3.5 to 12.3 cmol_c kg^-1 at the summit and shoulder, while in the other positions it does not exceed 2.3 cmol_c kg^-1 (Table 4).

Table 4
Chemical and physical properties of the soils from the Pito Aceso basin, municipality of Bom Jardim (RJ)

Horizon	pH		SB	Al3+	CEC	V	m	CS	FS	Silt	Clay	CS/FS
	H2O	KCl	––––– cmolc kg–1 ––––––			––– % ––––		––––– g kg–1 ––––––
P1 - Neossolo Litólico Húmico típico
Ap	5.3	4.1	8.8	0.9	34.2	26	9	488	159	228	125	3.07
R
P2 - Cambissolo Húmico Distrófico típico
Ap	6.1	4.8	12.3	0.1	35.1	35	1	298	121	248	333	2.46
A1	6.0	4.4	9.7	0.2	20.8	47	2	338	113	194	355	2.99
A2	5.7	4.1	4.2	1.2	14.2	30	22	321	144	181	354	2.23
AB	5.7	4.1	3.5	1.2	11.6	30	26	341	149	170	340	2.28
Bi	5.6	4.0	4.0	1.5	10.7	37	27	251	130	284	335	1.93
P3 - Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo Eutrófico úmbrico
Ap	6.2	5.1	6.9	0	10.1	68	0	377	177	181	265	2.13
AB	6.3	4.9	7.0	0	9.7	72	0	332	164	156	348	2.02
BA	6.4	4.6	6.2	0	9.1	68	0	312	154	144	390	2.03
Bt1	6.3	4.9	5.5	0	8.2	67	0	320	120	120	440	2.70
Bt2	6.2	4.9	4.8	0	9.0	53	0	258	145	101	496	1.78
BC	6.1	4.8	4.4	0	6.6	67	0	294	161	48	497	1.83
P4 - Argissolo Vermelho Distrófico úmbrico
Ap	4.9	3.9	2.3	0.7	9.0	26	23	528	102	86	284	5.18
BA	4.9	3.9	1.7	0.8	7.9	22	32	428	110	75	387	3.89
Bt1	4.8	3.9	1.6	1.6	11.4	14	50	313	78	74	535	4.01
Bt2	4.9	3.9	1.5	1.2	10.3	15	44	295	72	36	597	4.1
Bt3	5.0	4.1	1.1	0.9	7.9	14	45	272	68	41	619	4.0
Bw	5.0	4.2	0.9	0.6	6.4	14	40	315	72	36	577	4.38
P5 - Latossolo Amarelo Distrófico húmico
Ap	4.5	3.9	1.9	1.7	13.9	14	47	343	105	100	452	3.27
A1	4.5	4.0	1.1	2.2	14.0	8	67	335	91	101	473	3.68
A2	4.6	4.0	1.1	2.2	15.0	7	67	333	103	91	473	3.23
AB	4.9	4.0	0.9	2.1	11.6	8	70	341	103	63	493	3.31
BA	5.0	4.1	0.8	1.4	8.4	10	64	326	113	48	513	2.88
Bw1	4.7	4.1	0.6	1.0	6.0	10	62	322	117	49	512	2.75
Bw2	4.8	4.2	0.6	0.7	5.2	12	54	326	119	42	513	2.74
P6 - Argissolo Amarelo Distrófico abrúptico
Ap	5.6	4.1	1.5	0.4	5.8	26	21	413	166	178	243	2.49
A	5.4	4.0	0.8	0.5	4.3	19	38	474	166	178	182	2.66
AB	5.6	4.0	0.9	0.3	3.7	24	25	493	135	191	181	2.58
Bt1	5.4	4.0	1.1	0.7	5.8	19	39	311	112	130	447	2.78
Bt2	5.4	4.2	0.7	0.4	4.9	14	36	275	98	118	509	2.33
P7 - Neossolo Flúvico Tb Distroúmbrico gleissólico
Ap	4.3	3.7	1.1	1.8	10.7	10	62	353	173	188	286	2.04
C	4.6	3.8	0.8	1.1	5.1	16	58	479	200	119	202	2.40
Cg	5.3	3.9	2.6	0.5	6.3	41	16	364	218	174	244	1.67

• SB: sum of exchangeable bases; CEC: cation exchange capacity at pH 7.0; V: base saturation; m: aluminum saturation; CS: coarse sand; FS: fine sand. These analyses were performed in the air-dried fine earth according to the methods described in Donagema et al. (2011).

The SB gradient along the landscape may be related to rochosity at the summit and shoulder, where the weathering of the primary minerals serves as a constant source of calcium and magnesium. Along the slope, the leaching of the elements is attributed to removal of bases from pedogenic evolution, or to the colluvial nature of reworked and weathered material. In further analysis, the variation of the parent material along the landscape contributes differentiated as source of primary minerals, and consequently in the contribution of these in the soils.

In regard to potential acidity, the Al³⁺ contents vary greatly between and within the profiles, especially in the Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo, with absence of this element throughout the soil profile, and for the surface horizons of the Latossolo Amarelo, in which the contents are around 2.2 cmol_c kg^-1 (Table 4). In the Bt1 and Bt2 horizons of the Argissolo Vermelho and in the A2 and AB horizons of the Latossolo Amarelo, the Al³⁺ contents are higher than the overlying and underlying horizons. That pattern is attributed an increase in the OC contents and the predominance of humic fractions with higher reactivity, such as fulvic and humic acids (Tables 2 and 3).

The values of cation exchange capacity (CEC) in the soil profiles decreased with depth, except for the gley horizon. The values ranged from 3.7 to 35.1 cmol_c kg^-1 in the surface horizons and from 5.1 to 11.4 cmol_c kg^-1 in the subsurface horizons (Table 4). The high values of CEC in the surface horizons are related to the high organic matter content, observed mainly in the A húmico and A proeminente horizons. According to Calderano Filho (2012), the predominant mineralogy of the clay in the soil of the same region is kaolinite and iron and aluminum oxides, with very low CEC participation. Thus, by the chemical dynamics and large participation of potential acidity, the soils have base saturation from 7 to 47 % in the surface horizons. Values of base saturation from 10 to 41 % in the sub-surface horizons, except for the Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo with values above 53 % throughout the profile (Table 4). In contrast, the Latossolo Amarelo stands out through aluminum saturation higher than 50 % practically throughout the profile.

For particle size composition, predominance of coarse sand (251 to 528 g kg^-1) and clay (125 to 619 g kg^-1) fractions was observed, except for the Neossolo Litólico, in which the coarse sand content is followed by silt (Table 4). The clay increases in depth for the shoulder and backslope, where the water flow facilitates lateral removal of the colloidal material from the surface horizons. However, the colluvial-alluvial soil has erratic distribution of the particle size fractions and greater participation of the silt fraction occurs in the summit with talus deposition, which reflects the low degree of pedogenetic development.

In morphology, the occurrence of cutans (common and strong, common and moderate) in the Bt1 and Bt2 horizons, corroborating the increase in clay contents in depth for the Argissolos. The values of the textural gradient in the Argissolos Vermelho-Amarelo, Vermelho and Amarelo (1.44, 1.91, and 2.37, respectively) are highlighted, and in the Argissolo Amarelo, abrupt variation in the texture was observed according to the clay contents, which were 181 and 447 g kg^-1 in the AB and Bt1 horizons, respectively (Table 4). In this context, occurrence of the translocation and removal process is conducted by soil relief in favor of the relative and/or absolute increase in clay contents. In this sense, the position and curvature of the geomorphic surface become significant in the differentiated formation along the landscape, as in the formation of the textural gradient in the Argissolos.

As regards the composition obtained by sulfuric acid digestion of the subsurface horizons, SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ are predominantly present, with contents from 94 to 232 g kg^-1, most of them greater than 150 g kg^-1. However, the Fe₂O₃ were approximately half of the previous oxides (43 to 92 g kg^-1) (Table 5). In this context, similar results were obtained by Pereira and Anjos (1999) in soils developed in different rocks and sediments, and Chagas et al. (2013) in Argissolos developed from noritic granulites in the northwest region of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Santos (2009), in the Ribeirão do Cachimbal microbasin in the Paraíba do Sul region, highlights equitable distribution between SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and Fe₂O₃ in basic rocks, while for acid rock, Fe₂O₃ was approximately 1/3 in comparison to SiO₂ and Al₂O₃. The Ki and Kr values also had a similar pattern to the study under discussion.

Table 5
Oxides obtained by sulfuric acid digestion and selective extraction of the soils from the Pito Aceso basin, municipality of Bom Jardim (RJ)

Soil Class	Horizon	SiO2	Al2O3	Fe2O3	TiO2	Ki	Kr	Feo	Fed	Feo/Fed
		–––––––––––– g kg–1 ––––––––––––					–––––––––––– g kg–1 ––––––––––––
P2 - Cambissolo Húmico	Bi	232	184	88	12.0	2.14	1.64	4.8	36.3	0.13
P3 - Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo	Bt1	159	188	81	10.6	1.44	1.13	4.7	34.6	0.14
	Bt2	205	164	92	10.9	2.13	1.56
P4 - Argissolo Vermelho	Bt1	173	166	84	9.2	1.77	1.34	2.2	40.8	0.05
	Bt2	175	188	83	9.6	1.58	1.23
	Bt3	185	195	91	10.3	1.61	1.24
	Bw	173	191	78	9.5	1.54	1.22
P5 - Latossolo Amarelo	Bw1	158	163	74	8.6	1.65	1.28	1.0	40.0	0.03
	Bw2	152	164	71	8.2	1.58	1.23
P6 - Argissolo Amarelo	Bt1	203	197	72	13.9	1.75	1.42	1.6	45.0	0.04
	Bt2	226	215	86	15.5	1.79	1.42
P7 - Neossolo Flúvico	C	99	94	43	5.2	1.79	1.38	5.1	51.8	0.10
	Cg	133	113	48	6.6	2.00	1.57

• Ki = (SiO₂/Al₂O₃) × 1.7; Kr = (SiO₂ × 1.7)/(Al₂O₃ + (0.64 × Fe₂O₃); Feo: iron extracted by oxalate ammonium acid; and Fed: iron extracted by dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate. These analyses were performed in the air-dried fine earth according to the methods described in Donagema et al. (2011).

According to Resende and Santana (1988), the qualitative composition of the clay mineralogy can be inferred by the molecular relations of the Ki and Kr index. The Ki values in the profiles ranged from 1.44 to 2.14, with most less than 1.8, and the Kr ranged from 1.13 to 1.64. The values of both indexes >0.75 indicate the predominance of kaolinite in the clay fraction. This evidence was also reported by Calderano Filho (2012). Thus, kaolinite was often accompanied by goethite and gibbsite.

In fact, the iron oxide contents obtained by selective extraction show wide variation among the soil profiles. Highest values were observed in the C horizon of the Neossolo Flúvico, both for the Feo (1.0 to 5.1 g kg^-1) and Fed contents (34.6 to 51.8 g kg^-1) (Table 5). The lowest Feo contents were found in the backslope soil profiles, while, for the Fed, there was a tendency to increase from the summit to the toeslope. The predominance of high crystallinity forms of iron was detected by the Feo/Fed ratio and contents ranged from 0.03 to 0.14. In the slope profiles, contents were less than 0.05, which are lower than those found in the summit soil profiles (talus deposit) and toeslope (Table 5). In soils developed from different parent materials, Pereira and Anjos (1999) reported the variation among the subsurface horizons. These authors observed predominance of Fed, and greater Feo participation in the Cg horizons, which resulted in Feo/Fed ratios similar to those of this study. Santos (2009) observed wide variation in these oxides among the soil classes and among the horizons of each soil profile; the Feo/Fed ratio was slightly lower in the soils formed on the slope (backslope).

The differentiated formation of the soils is revealed by the application of theories and models that include the factors, mechanisms, and processes of soil formation. These will be approached clearly by variations in the degree of pedogenetic development, depending on the morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties of the profiles studied. The Neossolo Litólico and Cambissolo Húmico have the lowest degree of development, which is attributed to rejuvenation (morphogenesis > pedogenesis) through constant deposition of rock fragments as a talus deposit. In the Neossolo Flúvico, the constant accumulation of sediments is mainly due to the deposition of alluvial materials with different particle sizes and chemical compositions. Furthermore, for the Neossolo Flúvico with seasonal hydromorphism, expression of the great majority of pedogenetic processes is limited by its lowland position and proximity to the watercourse. As a reflection of seasonal hydromorphism, the anaerobic condition leads to reduction of Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺ and, thus, the colorlessness of the iron oxides. In this process, the grayish colors stand out as a consequence of the mixture of kaolinite and organic matter, resulting in the gleization process (reduction/oxidation) (Kämpf and Curi, 2012b).

Nevertheless, Argissolos occur mainly where the flow lines lead to water convergence (concave curvature), providing greater water infiltration in the soil profile and surface runoff. The greater internal water flow in the profile contributes to expression of downward translocation of dispersed colloidal organic and mineral materials, as observed by the textural gradient and increase in OC contents in the subsurface. In this soil, the absolute increase in the clay content in the subsurface horizon is caused by the pedogenetic process of argilluviation (eluviation/illuviation), which was observed through the relative increase in the clay content and by the cutans in the Bt1 and Bt2 horizons. In association with the previous process, surface runoff promotes selective removal of the mineral and organic colloidal particles by the elutriation process (Kämpf and Curi, 2012b). The argilluviation or elutriation processes occurring in an isolated or combined manner direct the formation of the B textural horizon.

In the Latossolo Amarelo and Argissolo Vermelho, the presence of the Bw horizon suggests considerable evolution of soils due to lower participation of silicate minerals in the clay fraction and consequent relative increase in oxides, attributed to the process of ferralitization (desilication and oxidation) (Kämpf and Curi, 2012b), which is favored by the combination of free drainage in the soil profile and high rainfall. In addition to the action of pedogenetic processes, possible variations in the chemical and mineralogical composition of the parent material lead to differences in the sorption complex and color variation in the subsurface. However, the presence of colluvium is considered possible since variations in the relationship between coarse sand and fine sand were found, as in Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo from the significant change between the Bt1 and Bt2 horizons, in the Argissolo Vermelho between the Ap and BA horizons, and the Latossolo Amarelo between the AB and BA horizons (Table 4).

Reflections on the formation of Latossolos with the A húmico horizon have been made based on polygenetic development and are thus considered relictual. Calegari (2008) concluded that the A húmico horizons were developed under drier and colder conditions in the lower and middle Holocene when the accumulation of organic matter and the melanization process would have begun, along with active soil fauna contributing to redistribution and homogenization of the material along the profile. In that study, the author refers to colluvial material, based on bibliographical reviews, as well as the morphological, particle size, and geochemical data of the study itself, which almost always indicate lithological discontinuity between the A and B horizons. The reworked material deposited from summit surfaces provides latossólicas porperties, especially microaggregates, kaolinite mineralogy, and oxides.

In the present landscape, the occurrence of Latossolos demarcates the resilience of these soils and their strong association with accentuated development of the surface horizons and the structure of the profile as a whole. In the surface of occurrence, the convex relief form is highlighted, as a factor that influences divergence of the lines of water flow, minimizing the erosive action of the surface water. The study by Chagas (2006) showed the influence of curvature on the degree of weathering of soils, with the most developed soils always occupying the slopes with convex curvature, similar to that verified in this study.

The occurrence of the Bt horizon over Bw in the Argissolo Vermelho suggests the occurrence of differentiated pedogenic processes, indicating possible polygenetic formation. According to Bocquier (1973), it is possible that transformations from one soil to another are not complete, especially in the deeper layers or horizons of the soil profile, since accumulations and transformations make them more superficial. Coltrinari et al. (1978) indicate the possibility of significant clay accumulation at the top of a B latossólico horizon because of translocation of the clay fraction, mainly as a result of the water percolation through the profiles. In the landscape of the present study, this would be controlled by climatic variation throughout the Pleistocene/Holocene, as highlighted by Lepsch and Buol (1986), Pessenda et al. (2005), and Calegari (2008).

CONCLUSIONS

Local geomorphological features are associated with possible variations in the chemical and mineralogical composition of the parent material, directly influencing pedogenesis and conditioning the occurrence of distinct soil classes in the landscape. Variation in the geomorphic surfaces conditions soil formation processes under current conditions and preservation of polygenetic soils.

Soils with a lower degree of development (Neossolos and Cambissolos) and with greater participation of the sorption complex were identified at the summit (talus deposit) and toeslope (colluvial-alluvial), whereas the more developed soils with lower nutrient content occurred in the concave (Argissolos) and convex (Latossolo) backslope, except for the Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo in the shoulder, which had high content of the sorption complex.

The formation of the A húmico horizon can be explained by the climate and vegetation conditions, while its current occurrence is due to the condition of greater stability of relief features, as in the Latossolo. The influence of the microclimate near the rocky base with lower temperature at higher altitude (>1,000 m) and the physical protection provided by the rock fragments is increased for the Neossolo Litólico and Cambissolo Húmico.

The development of a textural gradient in the Argissolos results from the combination of several processes and, in this study, it was closely related to water activity on the soil surface, whose concave curvature and linear profile condition both water infiltration in the soil profile and surface flow, removing particles of colloidal size and/or water percolation in the profile that facilitates the translocation of the colloidal mineral material.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our thanks for financial support of the projects: Faperj No. E-26/112.139/2008: Agroecological Zoning with Support of Digital Mapping Techniques of the Bom Jardim County (RJ); Faperj No. E-26/111.934/2011: Dynamics of soils with high organic matter content of the mountainous region of Rio de Janeiro State; Embrapa No. 02.09.01.021.00.00: Landscape dynamics associated to indicators to subsidize land use planning and the characterization of environmental services. Thanks also to the researcher Fabiano de Carvalho Balieiro from Embrapa Solos for the landscape design presented in Figure 2.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  2017

History

• Received
  09 Jan 2017
• Accepted
  22 May 2017