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The use of digital technologies in the practices of community health workers: an international scoping review

Abstract

This article aims to map the literature on the applications and perceptions regarding the use of digital technologies in the practices of community health workers. This is a scoping review conducted on PubMed, Bireme, SciELO, Web of Science, Embase, and Scopus. A total of 63 articles reporting the use of digital technologies by these workers in 24 countries were included. As a result, it was identified that support for maternal and child health is the most prevalent condition in these practices. The identified benefits involve increased access, improved work management, qualification, diversification, expanded training, and increased legitimacy of the profession. The challenges are reflected in limitations regarding community engagement, continuity of care, internet access, electricity, and digital literacy. In conclusion, it supports analyses regarding the irreversibility of the use of information and communication technologies in the world of work, emphasizing the need for their rational use while ensuring comprehensive, universal, and equitable access.

Keywords:
primary health care; community health workers; telemedicine

Resumo

Este artigo objetiva mapear a literatura sobre as aplicações e percepções acerca do uso de tecnologias digitais nas práticas de trabalhadores comunitários de saúde. Trata-se de uma revisão de escopo realizada na PubMed, Bireme, SciELO, Web of Science, Embase e Scopus. Foram incluídos 63 artigos que relatam o uso de tecnologias digitais por esses trabalhadores em 24 países. Como resultados, identificou-se que o suporte à saúde materno-infantil é a condição com maior predomínio das práticas. Os benefícios identificados envolvem ampliação do acesso, melhoria da gestão do trabalho, qualificação, diversificação, ampliação da formação e ganho de legitimidade da categoria. Os desafios se traduzem nas limitações em relação ao vínculo com a comunidade, longitudinalidade do cuidado, acesso à internet, energia elétrica e alfabetização digital. Como conclusão, corrobora-se com análises acerca da irreversibilidade do uso de tecnologias de informação e comunicação no mundo do trabalho, destacando-se a necessidade do seu uso racional dessas com a garantia do acesso de forma integral, universal e equitativa.

Palavras-chave:
atenção primária à saúde; agentes comunitários de saúde; saúde digital

Resumen

Este artículo tiene por objeto mapear la literatura sobre las aplicaciones y percepciones acerca del uso de tecnologías digitales en las prácticas de los trabajadores comunitarios de la salud. Se trata de una revisión del alcance realizada en PubMed, Bireme, SciELO, Web of Science, Embase y Scopus. Se han incluido 63 artículos sobre el uso de tecnologías digitales por parte de estos trabajadores en 24 países. Como resultado, se ha identificado que el apoyo a la salud maternoinfantil es la condición con mayor predominio de las prácticas. Los beneficios identificados implican la ampliación del acceso, mejora de la gestión del trabajo, calificación, diversificación, ampliación de la formación y aumento de la legitimidad de la categoría. Los desafíos se traducen en limitaciones en relación con el vínculo con la comunidad, la longitudinalidad de la atención, el acceso a Internet, la energía eléctrica y la alfabetización digital. En conclusión, se corrobora con análisis sobre la irreversibilidad del uso de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación en el mundo del trabajo, y se destaca la necesidad de su uso racional con la garantía del acceso de manera integral, universal y equitativa.

Palabras clave:
atención primaria de salud; trabajadores comunitarios de la salud; salud digital

Introduction

Experiences of lay healthcare provided by local residents, based on territorial knowledge and family guidance, have been recognized since the 1920s, starting with the work of barefoot doctors in China. Nearly 100 years later, at least 38 countries, including Brazil, across all continents, have been mapped with the presence of Community Health Workers (CHW) playing a significant role in the consolidation of the principles of Primary Health Care (PHC) (Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque, 2023MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; SANTOS, Romário C.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: o que dizem os estudos internacionais? Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, Rio de Janeiro, v. 28, n. 2, p. 501-520, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232023282.12222022. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/674G6vRBymvqsbMRTMYhSDn/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 27 mai. 2023.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/674G6vRBym...
).

The positive impacts of implementing CHW in healthcare systems and epidemiological indicators are well-described in the literature, particularly regarding the reduction of hospitalizations sensitive to PHC. (Pinto and Giovanella, 2018PINTO, Luiz F.; GIOVANELLA, Ligia. Do Programa à Estratégia Saúde da Família: expansão do acesso e redução das internações por condições sensíveis à atenção básica (ICSAB). Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, v. 23, n. 6, p. 1.903-1.913, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232018236.05592018. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/dXV7f6FDmRnj7BWPJFt6LFk/abstract/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/dXV7f6FDmR...
), chronic care management (Trump and Mendenhall, 2017TRUMP, Lisa J.; MENDENHALL, Tai J. Community health workers in diabetes care: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Families, Systems & Health, v. 35, n. 3, p. 320-340, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000283. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28639794/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28639794...
; Khetan et al., 2018KHETAN, Aditya et al. Role development of community health workers for cardiovascular disease prevention in India. Evaluation and Program Planning, v. 67, p. 177-183, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2018.01.006. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29407939/. Acesso em: 13 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29407939...
), healthcare access (Berini, Bonilha and Simpson, 2022BERINI, Carole R.; BONILHA, Heather S.; SIMPSON, Annie A. Impact of community health workers on access to care for rural populations in the United States: a systematic review. Journal of Community Health, v. 47, n. 3, p. 539-553, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-021-01052-6. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34817755/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34817755...
), maternal and child health indicators (Santos et al., 2020SANTOS, Alaneir F. et al. Contribution of community health workers to primary health care performance in Brazil. Revista de Saúde Pública, São Paulo, v. 54, p. 143, 2020. https://doi.org/10.11606/s1518-8787.2020054002327. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/rsp/a/69SytvpZpSn9DmwxqHX7qVN/?lang=en. Acesso em: 14 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/rsp/a/69SytvpZpS...
). It is worth noting that this category of professionals in Brazil is known as agente comunitário de saúde (ACS)and represents approximately 260,000 workers in the Unified Health System (SUS - in portuguese), with the majority being women (Nogueira, 2019NOGUEIRA, Mariana L. Expressões da precarização no trabalho do agente comunitário de saúde: burocratização e estranhamento do trabalho. Saúde e Sociedade, São Paulo, v. 28, n. 3, p. 309-323, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-12902019180783. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sausoc/a/3p3Hn8ywngS9GWL76FNW7TF/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/sausoc/a/3p3Hn8y...
).

Given the importance of this workforce in healthcare systems, international studies have drawn attention to the approach of initiatives from different countries that incorporate CHW. The results of some studies highlight the need for robust financing to ensure their implementation and development (Masis et al., 2021MASIS, Lizah et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 4. Programme financing. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 107, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00751-9. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641893/. Acesso em: 15 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641893...
), governance (Lewin, Lehmann and Perry, 2021LEWIN, Simon; LEHMANN, Uta; PERRY, Henry B. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 3. Programme governance. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 129, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00749-3. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641914/. Acesso em: 24 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641914...
), political support and legitimacy (Zulu and Perry, 2021ZULU, Joseph M.; PERRY, Henry B. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 130. Suppl n. 3. 2021 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00761-7. Disponível em: https://health-policy-systems.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12961-021-00761-7. Acesso em: 18 set. 2022.
https://health-policy-systems.biomedcent...
), intersectionality (Afzal et al., 2021AFZAL, Muhammad M. et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 2. Planning, coordination, and partnerships. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 103, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00753-7. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641912/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641912...
), adequate supervision (Westgate et al., 2021WESTGATE, Carey et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 7. Recent advances in supervision. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 114, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00754-6. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641909/. Acesso em: 20 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641909...
), deprecarization of work (Colvin, Hodgins and Perry, 2021COLVIN, Christopher J.; HODGINS, Steve; PERRY, Henry B. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 8. Incentives and remuneration. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 106, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00750-w. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641900/. Acesso em: 28 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641900...
), fair recruitment with continuing education (Schleiff et al., 2021SCHLEIFF, Meike J. et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 6. Recruitment, training, and continuing education. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 113, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00757-3. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641898/. Acesso em: 24 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641898...
), broad attributions (Glenton, Javadi and Perry, 2021GLENTON, Claire; JAVADI, Dena; PERRY, Henry B. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 5. Roles and tasks. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 128, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00748-4. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641903/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641903...
), in addition to evaluation and monitoring that considers qualitative and contextual aspects of its territorial work (Kok et al., 2021KOK, Maryse et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 10. Programme performance and its assessment. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 108, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00758-2. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641901/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641901...
). The ultimate goal would be to reverse a scenario of underutilization of this workforce in order to ensure universal access to health and quality of care provision. (Hartzler et al., 2018HARTZLER, Andrea L. et al. Roles and functions of community health workers in primary care. Annals of Family Medicine, v. 16, n. 3, p. 240-245, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.2208. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5951253/. Acesso em: 13 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Hodgins et al., 2021HODGINS, Stephen et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 1. Introduction: tensions confronting large-scale CHW programmes. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 109, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00752-8. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641886/. Acesso em: 16 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641886...
).

The COVID-19 pandemic, one of the greatest health challenges ever faced by humanity, has directly impacted the work of CHW in Brazil and around the world, with their activities being canceled or reduced (Méllo et al., 2021MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D. et al. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: práticas, legitimidade e formação profissional em tempos de pandemia de Covid-19 no Brasil. Interface: Comunicação, Saúde, Educação, v. 25, e210306, 2021. Suplemento 1. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.210306. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHPyYnQYfcG69zKxf/. Acesso em: 10 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHP...
; 2022bMÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; SANTOS, Romário C.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C. Agentes comunitárias de saúde na pandemia de Covid-19: scoping review. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, p. 368-384, 2022b. Número especial. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-11042022E125. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/CVbMJsGSNHnMKbSBTX6LL8L/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/CVbMJsGSN...
). At the same time, there has been an indispensability of their work in ensuring the monitoring of chronic patients, minority and vulnerable populations, including those with COVID-19, through a new modality of remote monitoring and care mediated by digital health technologies (Caetano et al., 2020CAETANO, Rosângela et al. Desafios e oportunidades para telessaúde em tempos da pandemia pela Covid-19: uma reflexão sobre os espaços e iniciativas no contexto brasileiro. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, v. 36, n. 5, p. 1-16, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00088920. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/swM7NVTrnYRw98Rz3drwpJf. Acesso em: 30 ago. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/swM7NVTrnY...
; André and Ribeiro, 2020ANDRÉ, Sara; RIBEIRO, Paulo. E-health: as TIC como mecanismo de evolução em saúde. Gestão e Desenvolvimento, Portugal, v. 28, p. 95-116, 2020. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.34632/gestaoedesenvolvimento.2020.9467. Disponível em: https://revistas.ucp.pt/index.php/gestaoedesenvolvimento/issue/view/586. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://revistas.ucp.pt/index.php/gestao...
; Méllo et al., 2021MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D. et al. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: práticas, legitimidade e formação profissional em tempos de pandemia de Covid-19 no Brasil. Interface: Comunicação, Saúde, Educação, v. 25, e210306, 2021. Suplemento 1. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.210306. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHPyYnQYfcG69zKxf/. Acesso em: 10 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHP...
; Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque, 2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ).

Although the pandemic scenario in 2020 served as a catalyst for increased use of these technologies in PHC (Caetano et al., 2020CAETANO, Rosângela et al. Desafios e oportunidades para telessaúde em tempos da pandemia pela Covid-19: uma reflexão sobre os espaços e iniciativas no contexto brasileiro. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, v. 36, n. 5, p. 1-16, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00088920. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/swM7NVTrnYRw98Rz3drwpJf. Acesso em: 30 ago. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/swM7NVTrnY...
; André and Ribeiro, 2020ANDRÉ, Sara; RIBEIRO, Paulo. E-health: as TIC como mecanismo de evolução em saúde. Gestão e Desenvolvimento, Portugal, v. 28, p. 95-116, 2020. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.34632/gestaoedesenvolvimento.2020.9467. Disponível em: https://revistas.ucp.pt/index.php/gestaoedesenvolvimento/issue/view/586. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://revistas.ucp.pt/index.php/gestao...
; Méllo et al., 2021MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D. et al. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: práticas, legitimidade e formação profissional em tempos de pandemia de Covid-19 no Brasil. Interface: Comunicação, Saúde, Educação, v. 25, e210306, 2021. Suplemento 1. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.210306. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHPyYnQYfcG69zKxf/. Acesso em: 10 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHP...
; Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque, 2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ), The implementation strategy for digital health technologies has been recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 2005 (World Health Organization, 2005ORGANIZAÇÃO MUNDIAL DE SAÚDE. Fifty-eighth World Health Assembly. Resolutions and decisions. (WHA58/2005/REC/1) Annex. 16-25, May 2005. Geneva: World Health Organization, Disponível em: http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA58-REC1/english/A58_2005_REC1-en.pdf. Acesso em: 17 set. 2022.
http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/W...
). According to Celuppi et al. (2021CELUPPI, Ianka C. et al. Uma análise sobre o desenvolvimento de tecnologias digitais em saúde para o enfrentamento da Covid-19 no Brasil e no mundo. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, v. 37, n. 3, e00243220. 2021 https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00243220. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/rvdKVpTJq8PqTk5MgTYTz3x/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 14 mar. 2023.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/rvdKVpTJq8...
, p. 2), The pandemic has demanded a shift from the traditional model of healthcare delivery, with investments in technological solutions. It is “believed that advancements in interactive health technologies can be an effective and safe option to facilitate communication between healthcare professionals and patients”. On the other hand, in Brazil, the role of digital tools in the work process of CHW has not been a consensus among managers and the CHW category itself (Lotta et al., 2020; Méllo et al., 2021MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D. et al. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: práticas, legitimidade e formação profissional em tempos de pandemia de Covid-19 no Brasil. Interface: Comunicação, Saúde, Educação, v. 25, e210306, 2021. Suplemento 1. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.210306. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHPyYnQYfcG69zKxf/. Acesso em: 10 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHP...
).

There is a debate about the concepts and definitions involved in the use of digital health technologies, such as those derived from telemedicine, then telehealth, and currently digital health. But, there is a common thread among these new care paradigms, which is the use of information and communication technologies to support services in healthcare, surveillance, education, and health information (André and Ribeiro, 2020ANDRÉ, Sara; RIBEIRO, Paulo. E-health: as TIC como mecanismo de evolução em saúde. Gestão e Desenvolvimento, Portugal, v. 28, p. 95-116, 2020. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.34632/gestaoedesenvolvimento.2020.9467. Disponível em: https://revistas.ucp.pt/index.php/gestaoedesenvolvimento/issue/view/586. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://revistas.ucp.pt/index.php/gestao...
; Caetano et al., 2020CAETANO, Rosângela et al. Desafios e oportunidades para telessaúde em tempos da pandemia pela Covid-19: uma reflexão sobre os espaços e iniciativas no contexto brasileiro. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, v. 36, n. 5, p. 1-16, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00088920. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/swM7NVTrnYRw98Rz3drwpJf. Acesso em: 30 ago. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/swM7NVTrnY...
; Lisboa et al., 2023LISBOA, Kálita O. et al. A história da telemedicina no Brasil: desafios e vantagens. Saúde e Sociedade, v. 32, n. 1, e210170pt, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-12902022210170pt. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sausoc/a/htDNpswTKXwVr667LV9V5cP/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 14 mar. 2023.
https://www.scielo.br/j/sausoc/a/htDNpsw...
).

As a legacy of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a global movement to implement or expand the workforce of CHW in various countries as a response to the health crisis, particularly in high-income countries like the United States and England (Haines et al., 2020HAINES, Andy et al. National UK programme of community health workers for Covid-19 response. Lancet, v. 395, n. 10.231, p. 1.173-1.175, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30735-2. Disponível em: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30735-2/fulltext. Acesso em: 1 set. 2022.
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lance...
; Waters, 2020WATERS, Rob. Community workers lend human connection to COVID-19 response. Health Affairs, v. 39, n. 7, p. 1.112-1.117, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2020.00836. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32634347/. Acesso em: 24 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32634347...
; Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque, 2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ).

The expansion and consolidation of community work in healthcare, as well as the use of new digital technologies, require the development of studies that can contribute to the reflection and guidance of policies that locate these workers within an expanded scope of knowledge, functions, instruments, and practices (Hartzler et al., 2018HARTZLER, Andrea L. et al. Roles and functions of community health workers in primary care. Annals of Family Medicine, v. 16, n. 3, p. 240-245, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.2208. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5951253/. Acesso em: 13 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Méllo et al., 2021MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D. et al. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: práticas, legitimidade e formação profissional em tempos de pandemia de Covid-19 no Brasil. Interface: Comunicação, Saúde, Educação, v. 25, e210306, 2021. Suplemento 1. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.210306. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHPyYnQYfcG69zKxf/. Acesso em: 10 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHP...
; Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque, 2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ). One aspect to consider in the analysis of this work modality is that health needs are not static, they vary with the historical period, as each context introduces changes in the work to be done and its instruments in a way that responds to the new demands of society and the State (Boiteux, Sarti and Lima, 2020BOITEUX, Pablo A.; SARTI, Thiago D.; LIMA, Rita C. D. Programa Mais Médicos: contribuições aos processos de trabalho e desafios para a integralidade do cuidado na Estratégia Saúde da Família. Revista Brasileira de Medicina de Família e Comunidade, Rio de Janeiro, v. 15, n. 42, p. 2.149, 2020. https://doi.org/10.5712/rbmfc15(42)2149. Disponível em: https://rbmfc.org.br/rbmfc/article/view/2149. Acesso em: 20 set. 2022.
https://rbmfc.org.br/rbmfc/article/view/...
). Indeed, when we consider Brazil, the work of CHW nowadays is not the same as it was when this profession was initially established, and it is expected to continue evolving in the future. The specific work processes and professional configuration will be shaped by the health needs of the population, influenced by the interests of the CHW category, the State, and the market (Yasbek, 2009YASBEK, Maria C. O significado sócio-histórico da profissão. Brasília: CFESS, 2009. Disponível em: https://www.cressrn.org.br/files/arquivos/3D6F81pn1Nsm7IhGdgh1.pdf. Acesso em: 25 out. 2022.
https://www.cressrn.org.br/files/arquivo...
; Méllo et al., 2021MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D. et al. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: práticas, legitimidade e formação profissional em tempos de pandemia de Covid-19 no Brasil. Interface: Comunicação, Saúde, Educação, v. 25, e210306, 2021. Suplemento 1. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.210306. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHPyYnQYfcG69zKxf/. Acesso em: 10 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHP...
).

Therefore, considering the accelerated changes brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, the recent expansions of national strategies for CHW, and the extensive use of digital technologies in PHC, the objective of this article is to map the literature on the applications and perceptions of digital technologies in the practices of CHW.

Methodology

This literature review falls under the scope approach, following the guidelines proposed by the Joanna Briggs Institute - JBI (2015)JOANNA BRIGGS INSTITUTE. The Joanna Briggs Institute reviewers manual 2015: methodology for JBI scoping reviews. 2015. Disponível em: https://repositorio.usp.br/item/002775594. Acesso em: 10 jul. 2022.
https://repositorio.usp.br/item/00277559...
. It presents characteristics such as the ability to map evidence and concepts, systematizing them as a way to guide theoretical constructions, identify gaps, and highlight trends in a specific field of knowledge (Daufenback et al., 2022 DAUFENBACK, Vanessa et al. Agrotóxicos, desfechos em saúde e agroecologia no Brasil: uma revisão de escopo. Saúde em Debate, Rio de Janeiro, v. 46, p. 482-500, 2022. Número especial 2. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-11042022E232. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/ZJ4CXpdSBbcGG6csLZ3HTfk/. Acesso em: 3 jul. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/ZJ4CXpdSB...
). This type of review is often used in studies of policy, planning, and health management, providing support for decision-making as well (Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque, 2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ).

In the theoretical construction of the guiding question, the strategy employed was Population, Concept e Context (PCC) (Joanna Briggs Institute, 2015JOANNA BRIGGS INSTITUTE. The Joanna Briggs Institute reviewers manual 2015: methodology for JBI scoping reviews. 2015. Disponível em: https://repositorio.usp.br/item/002775594. Acesso em: 10 jul. 2022.
https://repositorio.usp.br/item/00277559...
), being: P - community health workers; C - Digital technologies; and C - Practices, it converged on the question: How do community health workers apply digital technologies in their practices, and what are the benefits and challenges of these tools?

The direct translation into English of the expression agentes comunitários de saúde used in Brazil is community health workers. However, recognizing that there are analogous experiences in other countries where the nomenclature for this profession varies considerably, and with the intention of making the results of this article more robust, we employed the descriptors referenced by Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque (2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ) in your international review also on ACS. Nonetheless, for the retrieval of articles on digital technologies in health, we adopted the terms Telemedicine; Mobile Health; Health, Mobile; mHealth; Telehealth; eHealth, in addition to the boolean operators OR e AND (Santos, Pimenta and Nobre, 2007SANTOS, Cristina M. C.; PIMENTA, Cibele A. M.; NOBRE, Moacyr R. C. A estratégia pico para construção da pergunta de pesquisa e busca de evidências. Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem, São Paulo, v. 15, n. 3, p. 508-511, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-11692007000300023. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/rlae/a/CfKNnz8mvSqVjZ37Z77pFsy/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 10 jul. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/rlae/a/CfKNnz8mv...
). In Table 1, the search strategy is presented along with the virtual libraries/databases consulted between August 26 and August 31, 2022.

Table 1
Virtual library/database and search strategy employed.

The eligibility criteria were as follows: a) inclusion: studies addressing the applications or perceptions of the use of digital technologies in the practices of CHW; b) exclusion: duplicate studies; literature reviews; documents issued by the public administration, theses, dissertations, or conference proceedings; studies that, although using the search strategy descriptor, focus on another actor rather than a CHW; studies that, although mention CHW and digital technologies, focus primarily on the development of software, applications, or study protocols without providing any response to the guiding question.

There was no minimum time limit for article retrieval, but the cutoff date was set as the year 2021. There was also no limitation regarding the language of publication for the articles.

The article search was conducted independently by two reviewers (RC and LS), and any discrepancies were resolved through consultation with a third reviewer (LM). In the first phase, the search key was used to identify relevant articles. In the second phase, articles were selected based on the review of titles and abstracts. During the third phase, all selected articles were fully read for final inclusion, following the guidelines of the JBI and the adapted checklist from Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) (Joanna Briggs Institute, 2015) (Figure 1).

Figure 1
Flowchart indicating the study selection process adapted from the PRISMA

Finally, a corpus of the review was built with 63 included studies (Figure 1), followed by the organization and data extraction of interest from the articles into a standardized Excel® form, including author, year, country, role of digital technologies in the practices of CHW, social/health condition addressed by the digital technologies, description of the technology, tool utilized, methodology, benefits, and challenges of technology use.

Results

Of the places, objects, instruments, and roles of digital technologies in the practices of CHW

A total of 63 studies (Figure 1) were mapped, reporting the use of digital technologies by community health workers in 24 countries. Among these, 35 studies were conducted in African countries, 19 in the Americas, and 14 in Asia. The most frequently mentioned countries from each continent were South Africa, United States of America (USA), and India, with 7, 9, and 9 reports respectively. No findings were identified for Europe, Oceania, and Antarctica (Figure 2).

Figure 2
Distribution by continent of the mapped experiences and number of studies per country.

In Table 2, it can be observed that maternal health (21) was the most addressed health condition as the focus of digital technologies by CHW in the territories, followed by child health (19) and chronic conditions (15). The cell phone or smartphone was the main technological resource (48), and the functions of digital technologies in the practices of these workers highlighted data collection (33), support for clinical decision-making during home visits (22), or telemonitoring of health system users (18).

Table 2
Characterization of the object, instrument, and role of digital technologies in the practices of community health workers.

Benefits and challenges of using digital technologies in the practices of CHW

Benefits of using digital technologies in the practices of community health workers have shown advantages for the healthcare system and these workers.

There is a convergence that the use of technological tools implies an expansion of access to healthcare in terms of its universal coverage (Schuttner et al., 2014SCHUTTNER, Linnaea et al. A mobile phone-based, community health worker program for referral, follow-up, and service outreach in rural Zambia: outcomes and overview. Telemedicine Journal and E-health, v. 20, n. 8, p. 721-728, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2013.0240. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24926815/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24926815...
; Ayiasi et al., 2015AYIASI, Richard M. et al. Use of mobile phone consultations during home visits by community health workers for maternal and newborn care: community experiences from Masindi and Kiryandongo districts, Uganda. BMC Public Health, v. 15, p. 560, 2015. Disponível em: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-1939-3. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.co...
; Mengesha et al., 2018MENGESHA, Wendawek A. et al. Can mHealth improve timeliness and quality of health data collected and used by health extension workers in rural Southern Ethiopia? Journal Public Health, Oxford, v. 40, p. ii74-ii86, 2018. Suppl. 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy200. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131/. Acesso em: 15 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131...
; Patterson et al., 2018PATTERSON, Victor et al. Diagnosis of epileptic seizures by community health workers using a mobile app: a comparison with physicians and a neurologist. Seizure, v. 55, p. 4-8, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2017.12.006. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29291457/. Acesso em: 13 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29291457...
; Shah et al., 2019SHAH, Pankaj et al. High uptake of an innovative mobile phone application among community health workers in rural India: an implementation study. The National Medical Journal of India, v. 32, n. 5, p. 262-269, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-258X.295956. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439...
; Shah et al., 2021SHAH, Megha K. et al. Overcoming the digital divide in the Post-Covid-19 “Reset”: enhancing group virtual visits with community health workers. Journal of Medical Internet Research, v. 23, n. 7, e27682, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2196/27682. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8274676/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
), regarding the qualification of territorial care (Palazuelos et al., 2013PALAZUELOS, Daniel et al. User perceptions of an mHealth medicine dosing tool for community health workers. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 1, n. 1, e2, 2013. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.2459. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4114471/. Acesso em: 23 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Ayiasi et al., 2015AYIASI, Richard M. et al. Use of mobile phone consultations during home visits by community health workers for maternal and newborn care: community experiences from Masindi and Kiryandongo districts, Uganda. BMC Public Health, v. 15, p. 560, 2015. Disponível em: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-1939-3. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.co...
; Bonnell et al., 2018BONNELL, Susan et al. Community health workers and use of mhealth: improving identification of pregnancy complications and access to care in the Dominican Republic. Health Promotion Practice, v. 19, n. 3, p. 331-340, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839917708795. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28578606/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28578606...
; Laktabai et al., 2018LAKTABAI, Jeremiah et al. A mobile health technology platform for quality assurance and quality improvement of malaria diagnosis by community health workers. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 2, e0191968, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191968. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29389958/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29389958...
; Arnaert et al., 2019ARNAERT, Antonia et al. Experiences of women receiving mhealth-supported antenatal care in the village from community health workers in rural Burkina Faso, Africa. Digital Health, v. 5, p. 1-8, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055207619892756. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6891107/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Schaeffer et al., 2019SCHAEFFER, Lauren E. et al. Development and evaluation of a mobile application for case management of small and sick newborns in Bangladesh. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, v. 19, p. 116, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-019-0835-7. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221158/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221158...
; Zakus et al., 2019ZAKUS, David et al. Clinical evaluation of the use of an mhealth intervention on quality of care provided by community health workers in southwest Niger. Journal of Global Health, v. 9, n. 1, p. 10.812, 2019. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.09.010812. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6594719/. Acesso em: 18 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Kenna et al., 2019KENNA, Paula M. et al. Mobile training and support (MOTS) service-using technology to increase Ebola preparedness of remotely-located community health workers (CHWs) in Sierra Leone. mHealth, v. 5, p. 35, 2019. https://doi.org/10.21037/mhealth.2019.09.03. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6789201/. Acesso em: 20 nov. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
), decentralization of diagnoses or exams. (Gaziano et al., 2015GAZIANO, Thomas et al. Cardiovascular disease screening by community health workers can be cost-effective in low-resource countries. Health Aff (Millwood), v. 34, n. 9, p. 1.538-1.545, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0349. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26355056/. Acesso em: 20 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26355056...
; Laktabai et al., 2018LAKTABAI, Jeremiah et al. A mobile health technology platform for quality assurance and quality improvement of malaria diagnosis by community health workers. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 2, e0191968, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191968. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29389958/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29389958...
; Van Wyk et al., 2019VAN-WYK, Tanith et al. Supporting hearing health in vulnerable populations through community care workers using mHealth technologies. International Journal of Audiology, v. 58, n. 11, p. 790-797, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1080/14992027.2019.1649478. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31419388/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31419388...
; Schaeffer et al., 2019SCHAEFFER, Lauren E. et al. Development and evaluation of a mobile application for case management of small and sick newborns in Bangladesh. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, v. 19, p. 116, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-019-0835-7. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221158/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221158...
; Shinn et al., 2019SHINN, Justin R. et al. Community health workers obtain similar results using cell-phone based hearing screening tools compared to otolaryngologists in low resourced settings. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, v. 127, p. 109.670, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2019.109670. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31518844/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31518844...
; Adam et al., 2021ADAM, Maya et al. Evaluation of a community-based mobile video breastfeeding intervention in Khayelitsha, South Africa: the philani movie cluster-randomized controlled trial. PLoS Medicine, v. 18, n. 9, e1003744, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003744. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438/. Acesso em:18 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438...
; Vaughan et al., 2021VAUGHAN, Elizabeth M. et al. A telehealth-supported, integrated care with CHWs, and medication-access (TIME) program for diabetes improves HbA1c: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine, v. 36, n. 2, p. 455-463, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-06017-4. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32700217/. Acesso em: 26 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32700217...
), prevention of adverse outcomes in pregnancy, acute or chronic diseases (Atnafu et al., 2015ATNAFU, Asfaw et al. Assessment of voluntary community health workers participation and contribution in health intervention. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, v. 29, n. 3, p. 154-159, 2015. Disponível em: https://www.ejhd.org/index.php/ejhd/article/view/354. Acesso em: 1 out. 2022.
https://www.ejhd.org/index.php/ejhd/arti...
; Shah et al., 2019SHAH, Pankaj et al. High uptake of an innovative mobile phone application among community health workers in rural India: an implementation study. The National Medical Journal of India, v. 32, n. 5, p. 262-269, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-258X.295956. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439...
; Duffy et al., 2020DUFFY, Sean et al. Using community health workers and a smartphone application to improve diabetes control in rural Guatemala. Global Health: Science and Practice, v. 8, n. 4, p. 699-720, 2020. https://doi.org/10.9745/GHSP-D-20-00076. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33361237/. Acesso em: 1 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33361237...
; David, Utulu and Tyndall, 2021DAVID, Nakama; UTULU, Samuel C. A.; TYNDALL, Jeniffer. mHealth: a mediating tool for community health workers’ transformation in armed conflict zones. The African Journal of Information Systems, v. 13, n. 4, p. 493-513, 2021. Disponível em: https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis/vol13/iss4/4/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis...
; Vaughan et al., 2021VAUGHAN, Elizabeth M. et al. A telehealth-supported, integrated care with CHWs, and medication-access (TIME) program for diabetes improves HbA1c: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine, v. 36, n. 2, p. 455-463, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-06017-4. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32700217/. Acesso em: 26 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32700217...
) and a short-term solution for the shortage of health workforce (Laktabai et al., 2018LAKTABAI, Jeremiah et al. A mobile health technology platform for quality assurance and quality improvement of malaria diagnosis by community health workers. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 2, e0191968, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191968. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29389958/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29389958...
; Patterson et al., 2018PATTERSON, Victor et al. Diagnosis of epileptic seizures by community health workers using a mobile app: a comparison with physicians and a neurologist. Seizure, v. 55, p. 4-8, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2017.12.006. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29291457/. Acesso em: 13 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29291457...
; Willems et al., 2021WILLEMS, Annik et al. Co-creation and evaluation of nationwide remote training service for mental health education of community health workers in Rwanda. Frontiers in Public Health, v. 9, p. 632.793, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.632793. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34504821/. Acesso em: 25 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34504821...
).

In the professional category across different countries, there is an observed increase in legitimacy and recognition of the work among the healthcare team or within the community. This is due to the fact that these workers utilize technological resources, which leads to greater respect and trust from the community in their actions (Palazuelos et al., 2013PALAZUELOS, Daniel et al. User perceptions of an mHealth medicine dosing tool for community health workers. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 1, n. 1, e2, 2013. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.2459. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4114471/. Acesso em: 23 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Gaziano et al., 2015GAZIANO, Thomas et al. Cardiovascular disease screening by community health workers can be cost-effective in low-resource countries. Health Aff (Millwood), v. 34, n. 9, p. 1.538-1.545, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0349. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26355056/. Acesso em: 20 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26355056...
; Thondoo et al., 2015THONDOO, Meelan et al. Potential roles of mHealth for community health workers: formative research with end users in Uganda and Mozambique. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 3, n. 3, p. e76, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.4208. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419/. Acesso em: 28 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419...
; Ayiasi et al., 2015AYIASI, Richard M. et al. Use of mobile phone consultations during home visits by community health workers for maternal and newborn care: community experiences from Masindi and Kiryandongo districts, Uganda. BMC Public Health, v. 15, p. 560, 2015. Disponível em: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-1939-3. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.co...
; Tiase et al., 2017TIASE, Victoria L. et al. Assessing Impressions of Community Health Worker Use of Tablet-Based Medication Documentation Software. CIN: Computers, informatics, nursing. v. 35, n. 9, p. 447-451, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1097/cin.0000000000000349. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28353465/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28353465...
; Coetzee et al., 2018COETZEE, Bronwyné et al. Community health workers’ experiences of using video teaching tools during home visits: a pilot study. Health & Social Care in the Community, v. 26, n. 2, p. 167-175, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12488. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210...
; Steege et al., 2018STEEGE, Rosalind et al. The phone is my boss and my helper: a gender analysis of an mHealth intervention with Health extension workers in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health, v. 40, p. ii16-ii31, 2018. Suplemento 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy199. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130/. Acesso em: 30 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130...
; Ilozumba et al., 2018ILOZUMBA, Onaedo et al. “I am not telling. The mobile is telling”: factors influencing the outcomes of a community health worker mhealth intervention in India. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 3, e0194927, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194927. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773/. Acesso em: 22 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773...
; Namatovu and Kanjo, 2019NAMATOVU, Esther; KANJO, Chipo. Visibility in community health work mediated by mobile health systems: a case of Malawi. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, v. 85, e12071, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12071. Disponível em: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/isd2.12071. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full...
; Gopalakrishnan et al., 2020 GOPALAKRISHNAN, Lakshmi et al. Using mHealth to improve health care delivery in India: a qualitative examination of the perspectives of community health workers and beneficiaries. PLoS One, v. 15, e0227451, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227451. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326...
; Venkataraghavan et al., 2021 VENKATARAGHAVAN, Manjula et al. “Through their eyes, I can work”: rural physicians’ perceptions about mobile phone use among community health workers: a qualitative analysis. Health Education, v. 22, n. 2, p. 180-201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123. Disponível em: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123/full/html. Acesso em: 3 out. 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123...
; Kinshella et al., 2021KINSHELLA, Mai-Lei W. et al. “Now you have become doctors”: lady health workers experiences implementing an mhealth application in rural Pakistan. Frontiers in Global Women’s Health, v. 2, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2021.645705. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34816199/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34816199...
; Janevic et al., 2021JANEVIC, Mary et al. A pilot study of a chronic pain self-management program delivered by community health workers to underserved African American older adults. Pain Medicine, v. 23, n. 12, p. 1.965-1.978, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnaa468. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33779759/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33779759...
; Adam et al., 2021ADAM, Maya et al. Evaluation of a community-based mobile video breastfeeding intervention in Khayelitsha, South Africa: the philani movie cluster-randomized controlled trial. PLoS Medicine, v. 18, n. 9, e1003744, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003744. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438/. Acesso em:18 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438...
; David, Utulu and Tyndall, 2021DAVID, Nakama; UTULU, Samuel C. A.; TYNDALL, Jeniffer. mHealth: a mediating tool for community health workers’ transformation in armed conflict zones. The African Journal of Information Systems, v. 13, n. 4, p. 493-513, 2021. Disponível em: https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis/vol13/iss4/4/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis...
). In addition to greater visibility of this work, there is increased visibility due to women having access to digital devices in communities where traditionally only men had cell phones (Steege et al., 2018STEEGE, Rosalind et al. The phone is my boss and my helper: a gender analysis of an mHealth intervention with Health extension workers in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health, v. 40, p. ii16-ii31, 2018. Suplemento 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy199. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130/. Acesso em: 30 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130...
) (Table 3).

Table 3
Characterization of digital technologies incorporated in the activities of community health workers

In general, in the management of this work, there is an increase or improvement in supervision and collaboration between community health workers and other healthcare professionals within the healthcare team (Neupane et al., 2014NEUPANE, Sunisha et al. Comparing a paper based monitoring and evaluation system to a mHealth system to support the national community health worker programme, South Africa: an evaluation. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, v. 14, p. 69, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6947-14-69. Disponível em: https://bmcmedinformdecismak.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6947-14-69. Acesso em: 14 set. 2022.
https://bmcmedinformdecismak.biomedcentr...
; Thondoo et al., 2015THONDOO, Meelan et al. Potential roles of mHealth for community health workers: formative research with end users in Uganda and Mozambique. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 3, n. 3, p. e76, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.4208. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419/. Acesso em: 28 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419...
; Braun et al., 2016BRAUN, Rebecca et al. An evaluation of a family planning mobile job aid for community health workers in Tanzania. Contraception, v. 94, p. 27-33, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2016.03.016. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27039033/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27039033...
; Pimmer et al., 2017PIMMER, Christoph et al. Mobile instant messaging for rural community health workers: a case from Malawi. Global Health Action, v. 10, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2017.1368236. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28914165/. Acesso em: 01 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28914165...
; Steege et al., 2018STEEGE, Rosalind et al. The phone is my boss and my helper: a gender analysis of an mHealth intervention with Health extension workers in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health, v. 40, p. ii16-ii31, 2018. Suplemento 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy199. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130/. Acesso em: 30 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130...
; Laktabai et al., 2018LAKTABAI, Jeremiah et al. A mobile health technology platform for quality assurance and quality improvement of malaria diagnosis by community health workers. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 2, e0191968, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191968. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29389958/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29389958...
; Ilozumba et al., 2018ILOZUMBA, Onaedo et al. “I am not telling. The mobile is telling”: factors influencing the outcomes of a community health worker mhealth intervention in India. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 3, e0194927, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194927. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773/. Acesso em: 22 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773...
; Arnaert et al., 2019ARNAERT, Antonia et al. Experiences of women receiving mhealth-supported antenatal care in the village from community health workers in rural Burkina Faso, Africa. Digital Health, v. 5, p. 1-8, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055207619892756. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6891107/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Namatovu and Kanjo, 2019NAMATOVU, Esther; KANJO, Chipo. Visibility in community health work mediated by mobile health systems: a case of Malawi. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, v. 85, e12071, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12071. Disponível em: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/isd2.12071. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full...
; Shah et al., 2019SHAH, Pankaj et al. High uptake of an innovative mobile phone application among community health workers in rural India: an implementation study. The National Medical Journal of India, v. 32, n. 5, p. 262-269, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-258X.295956. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439...
); There is also an increase in the organization, accuracy, and agility of the collected information (Palazuelos et al., 2013PALAZUELOS, Daniel et al. User perceptions of an mHealth medicine dosing tool for community health workers. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 1, n. 1, e2, 2013. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.2459. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4114471/. Acesso em: 23 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Iyengar and Florez-Arango, 2013IYENGAR, Sriram; FLOREZ-ARANGO, Jose F. Decreasing workload among community health workers using interactive, structured, rich-media guidelines on smartphones. Technology and Health Care, v. 21, n. 2, p. 113-123, 2013. https://doi.org/10.3233/THC-130713. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23510972/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23510972...
; Neupane et al., 2014NEUPANE, Sunisha et al. Comparing a paper based monitoring and evaluation system to a mHealth system to support the national community health worker programme, South Africa: an evaluation. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, v. 14, p. 69, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6947-14-69. Disponível em: https://bmcmedinformdecismak.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6947-14-69. Acesso em: 14 set. 2022.
https://bmcmedinformdecismak.biomedcentr...
; Surka et al., 2014SURKA, Sam et al. Evaluating the use of mobile phone technology to enhance cardiovascular disease screening by community health workers. International Journal of Medical Informatics, v. 83, n. 9, p. 648-654, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2014.06.008. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25002305/. Acesso em: 16 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25002305...
; Brown and Mickelson, 2016BROWN, Suzana; MICKELSON, Alan R. Smart phones as a viable data collection tool in low-resource settings: case study of Rwandan community health workers. Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, v. 4, n. 2, p. 132-139, 2016. https://doi.org/10.2174/2213385204666160711155116. Disponível em: https://experts.colorado.edu/display/pubid_145440. Acesso em: 19 nov. 2022.
https://experts.colorado.edu/display/pub...
; Schoen et al., 2017SCHOEN, Julia et al. Perspectives and experiences of community health workers in Brazilian primary care centers using m-health tools in home visits with community members. Health Human Resources, v. 15, p. 71, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-017-0245-9. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28962569/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28962569...
; Pimmer et al., 2017PIMMER, Christoph et al. Mobile instant messaging for rural community health workers: a case from Malawi. Global Health Action, v. 10, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2017.1368236. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28914165/. Acesso em: 01 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28914165...
; Schaeffer et al., 2019SCHAEFFER, Lauren E. et al. Development and evaluation of a mobile application for case management of small and sick newborns in Bangladesh. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, v. 19, p. 116, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-019-0835-7. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221158/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221158...
; Hackett et al., 2019HACKETT, Kristy et al. It makes you someone who changes with the times’: health worker and client perspectives on a smartphone-based counselling application deployed in rural Tanzania. Health Policy and Planning, v. 34, n. 4, p. 307-315, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czz036. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31155655/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31155655...
; Venkataraghavan et al., 2021 VENKATARAGHAVAN, Manjula et al. “Through their eyes, I can work”: rural physicians’ perceptions about mobile phone use among community health workers: a qualitative analysis. Health Education, v. 22, n. 2, p. 180-201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123. Disponível em: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123/full/html. Acesso em: 3 out. 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123...
); There is a decrease in travel costs to healthcare centers because CHW are now able to download reports from the territory directly in their homes using the internet (Thondoo et al., 2015THONDOO, Meelan et al. Potential roles of mHealth for community health workers: formative research with end users in Uganda and Mozambique. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 3, n. 3, p. e76, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.4208. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419/. Acesso em: 28 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419...
); there is a time-saving aspect as well, as unnecessary in-person home visits are avoided, and community health workers can utilize applications or even phone calls instead (Zaidi et al., 2020ZAIDI, Shehla et al. Operability, usefulness, and task-technology fit of an health app for delivering primary health care services by community health workers in underserved areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan: qualitative study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, v. 22, n. 9, e18414, 2020. https://doi.org/10.2196/18414. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32940612/. Acesso em: 21 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32940612...
; Venkataraghavan et al., 2021 VENKATARAGHAVAN, Manjula et al. “Through their eyes, I can work”: rural physicians’ perceptions about mobile phone use among community health workers: a qualitative analysis. Health Education, v. 22, n. 2, p. 180-201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123. Disponível em: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123/full/html. Acesso em: 3 out. 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123...
); reduction in the workload (Iyengar and Florez-Arango, 2013IYENGAR, Sriram; FLOREZ-ARANGO, Jose F. Decreasing workload among community health workers using interactive, structured, rich-media guidelines on smartphones. Technology and Health Care, v. 21, n. 2, p. 113-123, 2013. https://doi.org/10.3233/THC-130713. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23510972/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23510972...
; Bhardwaj et al., 2020BHARDWAJ, Anvita et al. Lessons learned through piloting a community-based SMS referral system for common mental health disorders used by female community health volunteers in rural Nepal. BMC Research Notes, v. 13, p. 309, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-020-05148-5. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32611435/. Acesso em: 13 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32611435...
; Adam et al., 2021ADAM, Maya et al. Evaluation of a community-based mobile video breastfeeding intervention in Khayelitsha, South Africa: the philani movie cluster-randomized controlled trial. PLoS Medicine, v. 18, n. 9, e1003744, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003744. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438/. Acesso em:18 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438...
); increase in job satisfaction as well (Iyengar and Florez-Arango, 2013IYENGAR, Sriram; FLOREZ-ARANGO, Jose F. Decreasing workload among community health workers using interactive, structured, rich-media guidelines on smartphones. Technology and Health Care, v. 21, n. 2, p. 113-123, 2013. https://doi.org/10.3233/THC-130713. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23510972/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23510972...
; Braun et al., 2016BRAUN, Rebecca et al. An evaluation of a family planning mobile job aid for community health workers in Tanzania. Contraception, v. 94, p. 27-33, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2016.03.016. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27039033/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27039033...
) (Table 3).

Regarding tele-education, both for the training of CHW and for health education within the community itself, mediated through video conferences, videos, or other resources, it is noted that regardless of the virtual strategy employed, there has been a gain in knowledge acquisition. This has influenced the outcomes of their work, including improvements in organization, engagement, health education, and decision-making (Melo et al., 2010MELO, Tatiana M. et al. Capacitação de agentes comunitários de saúde em saúde auditiva: efetividade da videoconferência. Pró-Fono Revista de Atualização Científica, v. 22, n. 2, p. 139-144, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-56872010000200012. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/pfono/a/w58ydrgswfcp8NxNcpwVvMR/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/pfono/a/w58ydrgs...
; Conceição and Barreira-Nielsen, 2014CONCEIÇÃO, Heyder V.; BARREIRA-NIELSEN, Carmen. Capacitação em saúde auditiva: avaliação da ferramenta no Programa de Telessaúde Brasil. Revista CEFAC, Campinas, v. 16, n. 5, p. 1.426-1.433, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-0216201411113. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/rcefac/a/NDSHLFQBgLYMg4MdJM6KXkg/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 21 set. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/rcefac/a/NDSHLFQ...
; Heisler et al., 2014HEISLER, Michele et al. Comparison of community health worker-led diabetes medication decision-making support for low-income Latino and African American adults with diabetes using e-health tools versus print materials: a randomized, controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, v. 161, S13-S22, 2014. Suppl. 10. https://doi.org/10.7326/M13-3012. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25402398/. Acesso em: 12 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25402398...
; Prentiss et al., 2018PRENTISS, Tyler et al. Community health workers (CHWs) as innovators: insights from a Tele-Education Pilot for CHWs in Detroit, Michigan. International Journal of Healthcare Information Systems and Informatics, v. 13, p. 15-28, 2018. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJHISI.2018010102. Disponível em: https://www.igi-global.com/article/community-health-workers-chws-as-innovators/192184. Acesso em: 12 nov. 2022.
https://www.igi-global.com/article/commu...
; Coetzee et al., 2018COETZEE, Bronwyné et al. Community health workers’ experiences of using video teaching tools during home visits: a pilot study. Health & Social Care in the Community, v. 26, n. 2, p. 167-175, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12488. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210...
; Hackett et al., 2019HACKETT, Kristy et al. It makes you someone who changes with the times’: health worker and client perspectives on a smartphone-based counselling application deployed in rural Tanzania. Health Policy and Planning, v. 34, n. 4, p. 307-315, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czz036. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31155655/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31155655...
; Keegan et al., 2020KEEGAN, Casey N. et al. Evaluating the impact of telehealth-based, diabetes medication training for community health workers on glycemic control. Journal of Personalized Medicine, v. 10, n. 3, p. 121, 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm10030121. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32932865/. Acesso em: 22 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32932865...
; Gopalakrishnan et al., 2020 GOPALAKRISHNAN, Lakshmi et al. Using mHealth to improve health care delivery in India: a qualitative examination of the perspectives of community health workers and beneficiaries. PLoS One, v. 15, e0227451, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227451. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326...
; Suryavanshi et al., 2020 SURYAVANSHI, Nishi et al. A mobile health-facilitated behavioural intervention for community health workers improves exclusive breastfeeding and early infant HIV diagnosis in India: a cluster randomized trial. Journal of the International AIDS Society, v. 23, n. 7, e25555, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25555. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7332965/. Acesso em: 26 nov. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Ward et al., 2020WARD, Victoria C. et al. Impact of mHealth interventions for reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition at scale: BBC Media Action and the Ananya program in Bihar, India. Journal of Global Health, v. 10, n. 2, p. 021005, 2020. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.10.021005. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33425329/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33425329...
; Janevic et al., 2021JANEVIC, Mary et al. A pilot study of a chronic pain self-management program delivered by community health workers to underserved African American older adults. Pain Medicine, v. 23, n. 12, p. 1.965-1.978, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnaa468. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33779759/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33779759...
; Hicks et al., 2021HICKS, Joseph P. et al. Acceptability and potential effectiveness of eHealth tools for training primary health workers from Nigeria at scale: mixed methods, uncontrolled before-and-after study. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 9, n. 9, e24182, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2196/24182. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34528891/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34528891...
; Willems et al., 2021WILLEMS, Annik et al. Co-creation and evaluation of nationwide remote training service for mental health education of community health workers in Rwanda. Frontiers in Public Health, v. 9, p. 632.793, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.632793. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34504821/. Acesso em: 25 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34504821...
; Vaughan et al., 2021VAUGHAN, Elizabeth M. et al. A telehealth-supported, integrated care with CHWs, and medication-access (TIME) program for diabetes improves HbA1c: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine, v. 36, n. 2, p. 455-463, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-06017-4. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32700217/. Acesso em: 26 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32700217...
). When observed as a training resource for CHW some studies have mentioned that there is a similar quality between the applied technology and the traditional training method (O’donovan et al., 2018O’DONOVAN, James et al. The use of low-cost Android tablets to train community health workers in Mukono, Uganda, in the recognition, treatment and prevention of pneumonia in children under five: a pilot randomised controlled trial. Health Human Resources, v. 16, p. 49, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-018-0315-7. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6146528/. Acesso em: 23 nov. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Kenna et al., 2019KENNA, Paula M. et al. Mobile training and support (MOTS) service-using technology to increase Ebola preparedness of remotely-located community health workers (CHWs) in Sierra Leone. mHealth, v. 5, p. 35, 2019. https://doi.org/10.21037/mhealth.2019.09.03. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6789201/. Acesso em: 20 nov. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Vaughan et al., 2020VAUGHAN, Elizabeth M. et al. Telemedicine training and support for community health workers: improving knowledge of diabetes. Telemedicine Journal and E-health, v. 26, n. 2, p. 244-250, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2018.0313. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30839244/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30839244...
) (Table 3).

In studies where CHW used apps to assist in clinical decision-making during home visits, such as patient screening, it is reported that there is both financial savings for diagnoses (Gaziano et al., 2015GAZIANO, Thomas et al. Cardiovascular disease screening by community health workers can be cost-effective in low-resource countries. Health Aff (Millwood), v. 34, n. 9, p. 1.538-1.545, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0349. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26355056/. Acesso em: 20 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26355056...
) as well as time saving compared to paper-based clinical risk stratification forms. (Palazuelos et al., 2013PALAZUELOS, Daniel et al. User perceptions of an mHealth medicine dosing tool for community health workers. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 1, n. 1, e2, 2013. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.2459. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4114471/. Acesso em: 23 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Surka et al., 2014SURKA, Sam et al. Evaluating the use of mobile phone technology to enhance cardiovascular disease screening by community health workers. International Journal of Medical Informatics, v. 83, n. 9, p. 648-654, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2014.06.008. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25002305/. Acesso em: 16 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25002305...
; Schaeffer et al., 2019SCHAEFFER, Lauren E. et al. Development and evaluation of a mobile application for case management of small and sick newborns in Bangladesh. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, v. 19, p. 116, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-019-0835-7. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221158/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221158...
; Hackett et al., 2019HACKETT, Kristy et al. It makes you someone who changes with the times’: health worker and client perspectives on a smartphone-based counselling application deployed in rural Tanzania. Health Policy and Planning, v. 34, n. 4, p. 307-315, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czz036. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31155655/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31155655...
). There are also mentions of an increase in patient referral rates (Shinn et al., 2019SHINN, Justin R. et al. Community health workers obtain similar results using cell-phone based hearing screening tools compared to otolaryngologists in low resourced settings. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, v. 127, p. 109.670, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2019.109670. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31518844/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31518844...
; Zakus et al., 2019ZAKUS, David et al. Clinical evaluation of the use of an mhealth intervention on quality of care provided by community health workers in southwest Niger. Journal of Global Health, v. 9, n. 1, p. 10.812, 2019. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.09.010812. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6594719/. Acesso em: 18 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Van Wyk et al., 2019VAN-WYK, Tanith et al. Supporting hearing health in vulnerable populations through community care workers using mHealth technologies. International Journal of Audiology, v. 58, n. 11, p. 790-797, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1080/14992027.2019.1649478. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31419388/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31419388...
), and improved adherence to treatment or medication (Vedanthan et al., 2019 VEDANTHAN, Rajesh et al. Community health workers improve linkage to hypertension care in Western Kenya. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, v. 74, n. 15, p. 1.897-1.906, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2019.08.003. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31487546/. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31487546...
; Duffy et al., 2020DUFFY, Sean et al. Using community health workers and a smartphone application to improve diabetes control in rural Guatemala. Global Health: Science and Practice, v. 8, n. 4, p. 699-720, 2020. https://doi.org/10.9745/GHSP-D-20-00076. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33361237/. Acesso em: 1 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33361237...
; David, Utulu and Tyndall, 2021DAVID, Nakama; UTULU, Samuel C. A.; TYNDALL, Jeniffer. mHealth: a mediating tool for community health workers’ transformation in armed conflict zones. The African Journal of Information Systems, v. 13, n. 4, p. 493-513, 2021. Disponível em: https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis/vol13/iss4/4/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis...
) (Table 3).

The challenges (Table 3) for the use of digital technologies in relation to the practices of CHW can be explained by the limited digital literacy of these professionals or the community. This is identified as one of the main barriers to their use in the field (Schuttner et al., 2014SCHUTTNER, Linnaea et al. A mobile phone-based, community health worker program for referral, follow-up, and service outreach in rural Zambia: outcomes and overview. Telemedicine Journal and E-health, v. 20, n. 8, p. 721-728, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2013.0240. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24926815/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24926815...
; Pimmer et al., 2017PIMMER, Christoph et al. Mobile instant messaging for rural community health workers: a case from Malawi. Global Health Action, v. 10, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2017.1368236. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28914165/. Acesso em: 01 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28914165...
; Venkataraghavan et al., 2021 VENKATARAGHAVAN, Manjula et al. “Through their eyes, I can work”: rural physicians’ perceptions about mobile phone use among community health workers: a qualitative analysis. Health Education, v. 22, n. 2, p. 180-201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123. Disponível em: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123/full/html. Acesso em: 3 out. 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123...
), associated with low connectivity or poor internet quality (Atnafu et al., 2015ATNAFU, Asfaw et al. Assessment of voluntary community health workers participation and contribution in health intervention. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, v. 29, n. 3, p. 154-159, 2015. Disponível em: https://www.ejhd.org/index.php/ejhd/article/view/354. Acesso em: 1 out. 2022.
https://www.ejhd.org/index.php/ejhd/arti...
; Medhanyie et al., 2015MEDHANYIE, Araya A. et al. Mobile health data collection at primary health care in Ethiopia: a feasible challenge. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, v. 68, p. 80-6, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.09.006. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25441699/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25441699...
; Biemba et al., 2017BIEMBA, Godfrey et al. A mobile-based community health management information system for community health workers and their supervisors in 2 districts of Zambia. Global Health: Science and Practice, v. 5, n. 3, p. 486-494, 2017. https://doi.org/10.9745/GHSP-D-16-00275. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28855233/. Acesso em: 24 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28855233...
; Ilozumba et al., 2018ILOZUMBA, Onaedo et al. “I am not telling. The mobile is telling”: factors influencing the outcomes of a community health worker mhealth intervention in India. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 3, e0194927, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194927. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773/. Acesso em: 22 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773...
; Mannik et al., 2018MANNIK, Jennifer et al. Community-based screening for cardiovascular risk using a novel Health tool in rural Kenya. Journal of Innovation in Health Informatics, v. 25, n. 3, p. 176-182, 2018. https://doi.org/10.14236/jhi.v25i3.1012. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30398461/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30398461...
; Mengesha et al., 2018MENGESHA, Wendawek A. et al. Can mHealth improve timeliness and quality of health data collected and used by health extension workers in rural Southern Ethiopia? Journal Public Health, Oxford, v. 40, p. ii74-ii86, 2018. Suppl. 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy200. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131/. Acesso em: 15 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131...
; Gopalakrishnan et al., 2020 GOPALAKRISHNAN, Lakshmi et al. Using mHealth to improve health care delivery in India: a qualitative examination of the perspectives of community health workers and beneficiaries. PLoS One, v. 15, e0227451, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227451. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326...
; Venkataraghavan et al., 2021 VENKATARAGHAVAN, Manjula et al. “Through their eyes, I can work”: rural physicians’ perceptions about mobile phone use among community health workers: a qualitative analysis. Health Education, v. 22, n. 2, p. 180-201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123. Disponível em: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123/full/html. Acesso em: 3 out. 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123...
; David, Utulu and Tyndall, 2021DAVID, Nakama; UTULU, Samuel C. A.; TYNDALL, Jeniffer. mHealth: a mediating tool for community health workers’ transformation in armed conflict zones. The African Journal of Information Systems, v. 13, n. 4, p. 493-513, 2021. Disponível em: https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis/vol13/iss4/4/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis...
) or the scarce supply of electricity to recharge devices, especially when considering work in remote areas (Schuttner et al., 2014SCHUTTNER, Linnaea et al. A mobile phone-based, community health worker program for referral, follow-up, and service outreach in rural Zambia: outcomes and overview. Telemedicine Journal and E-health, v. 20, n. 8, p. 721-728, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2013.0240. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24926815/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24926815...
; Atnafu et al., 2015ATNAFU, Asfaw et al. Assessment of voluntary community health workers participation and contribution in health intervention. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, v. 29, n. 3, p. 154-159, 2015. Disponível em: https://www.ejhd.org/index.php/ejhd/article/view/354. Acesso em: 1 out. 2022.
https://www.ejhd.org/index.php/ejhd/arti...
; Medhanyie et al., 2015MEDHANYIE, Araya A. et al. Mobile health data collection at primary health care in Ethiopia: a feasible challenge. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, v. 68, p. 80-6, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.09.006. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25441699/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25441699...
; Braun et al., 2016BRAUN, Rebecca et al. An evaluation of a family planning mobile job aid for community health workers in Tanzania. Contraception, v. 94, p. 27-33, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2016.03.016. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27039033/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27039033...
; Mannik et al., 2018MANNIK, Jennifer et al. Community-based screening for cardiovascular risk using a novel Health tool in rural Kenya. Journal of Innovation in Health Informatics, v. 25, n. 3, p. 176-182, 2018. https://doi.org/10.14236/jhi.v25i3.1012. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30398461/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30398461...
; Mengesha et al., 2018MENGESHA, Wendawek A. et al. Can mHealth improve timeliness and quality of health data collected and used by health extension workers in rural Southern Ethiopia? Journal Public Health, Oxford, v. 40, p. ii74-ii86, 2018. Suppl. 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy200. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131/. Acesso em: 15 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131...
; Gopalakrishnan et al., 2020 GOPALAKRISHNAN, Lakshmi et al. Using mHealth to improve health care delivery in India: a qualitative examination of the perspectives of community health workers and beneficiaries. PLoS One, v. 15, e0227451, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227451. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326...
).

The language settings of mobile phones, tablets, or apps, when not adapted to the local language, also present a difficulty for the use of these resources (Thondoo et al., 2015THONDOO, Meelan et al. Potential roles of mHealth for community health workers: formative research with end users in Uganda and Mozambique. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 3, n. 3, p. e76, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.4208. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419/. Acesso em: 28 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419...
; Medhanyie et al., 2015MEDHANYIE, Araya A. et al. Mobile health data collection at primary health care in Ethiopia: a feasible challenge. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, v. 68, p. 80-6, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.09.006. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25441699/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25441699...
); similarly, the high financial costs of telephone networks or mobile data when not subsidized by the government pose a challenge, as it requires direct payment by the workers (Steege et al., 2018STEEGE, Rosalind et al. The phone is my boss and my helper: a gender analysis of an mHealth intervention with Health extension workers in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health, v. 40, p. ii16-ii31, 2018. Suplemento 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy199. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130/. Acesso em: 30 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130...
; Zaidi et al., 2020ZAIDI, Shehla et al. Operability, usefulness, and task-technology fit of an health app for delivering primary health care services by community health workers in underserved areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan: qualitative study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, v. 22, n. 9, e18414, 2020. https://doi.org/10.2196/18414. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32940612/. Acesso em: 21 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32940612...
); there is also a lack of security in the territory, which leads to fear of device theft (Coetzee et al., 2018COETZEE, Bronwyné et al. Community health workers’ experiences of using video teaching tools during home visits: a pilot study. Health & Social Care in the Community, v. 26, n. 2, p. 167-175, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12488. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210...
); low motivation (Musabyimana et al., 2018MUSABYIMANA, Angele et al. Assessing the perspectives of users and beneficiaries of a community health worker mHealth tracking system for mothers and children in Rwanda. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 6, e0198725, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198725. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879186/. Acesso em: 20 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879186...
), insufficient education or training of CHW (Musabyimana et al., 2018MUSABYIMANA, Angele et al. Assessing the perspectives of users and beneficiaries of a community health worker mHealth tracking system for mothers and children in Rwanda. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 6, e0198725, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198725. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879186/. Acesso em: 20 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879186...
; Bhardwaj et al., 2020BHARDWAJ, Anvita et al. Lessons learned through piloting a community-based SMS referral system for common mental health disorders used by female community health volunteers in rural Nepal. BMC Research Notes, v. 13, p. 309, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-020-05148-5. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32611435/. Acesso em: 13 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32611435...
; Venkataraghavan et al., 2021 VENKATARAGHAVAN, Manjula et al. “Through their eyes, I can work”: rural physicians’ perceptions about mobile phone use among community health workers: a qualitative analysis. Health Education, v. 22, n. 2, p. 180-201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123. Disponível em: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123/full/html. Acesso em: 3 out. 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123...
; Kinshella et al., 2021KINSHELLA, Mai-Lei W. et al. “Now you have become doctors”: lady health workers experiences implementing an mhealth application in rural Pakistan. Frontiers in Global Women’s Health, v. 2, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2021.645705. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34816199/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34816199...
; Shah et al., 2021SHAH, Megha K. et al. Overcoming the digital divide in the Post-Covid-19 “Reset”: enhancing group virtual visits with community health workers. Journal of Medical Internet Research, v. 23, n. 7, e27682, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2196/27682. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8274676/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
); insufficient collaboration from other professionals in carrying out the work (Ayiasi et al., 2015AYIASI, Richard M. et al. Use of mobile phone consultations during home visits by community health workers for maternal and newborn care: community experiences from Masindi and Kiryandongo districts, Uganda. BMC Public Health, v. 15, p. 560, 2015. Disponível em: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-1939-3. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.co...
); and the intensive use of technology, disregarding physical interaction, is another challenge that has emerged in the studies (Schoen et al., 2017SCHOEN, Julia et al. Perspectives and experiences of community health workers in Brazilian primary care centers using m-health tools in home visits with community members. Health Human Resources, v. 15, p. 71, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-017-0245-9. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28962569/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28962569...
). It is worth noting that there have been studies mentioning an increase in workload caused by digital technologies, diverging from other experiences that cite a reduction in workload (Steege et al., 2018STEEGE, Rosalind et al. The phone is my boss and my helper: a gender analysis of an mHealth intervention with Health extension workers in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health, v. 40, p. ii16-ii31, 2018. Suplemento 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy199. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130/. Acesso em: 30 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130...
; Mengesha et al., 2018MENGESHA, Wendawek A. et al. Can mHealth improve timeliness and quality of health data collected and used by health extension workers in rural Southern Ethiopia? Journal Public Health, Oxford, v. 40, p. ii74-ii86, 2018. Suppl. 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy200. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131/. Acesso em: 15 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131...
; Namatovu and Kanjo, 2019NAMATOVU, Esther; KANJO, Chipo. Visibility in community health work mediated by mobile health systems: a case of Malawi. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, v. 85, e12071, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12071. Disponível em: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/isd2.12071. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full...
; Shah et al., 2019SHAH, Pankaj et al. High uptake of an innovative mobile phone application among community health workers in rural India: an implementation study. The National Medical Journal of India, v. 32, n. 5, p. 262-269, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-258X.295956. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439...
; Hicks et al., 2021HICKS, Joseph P. et al. Acceptability and potential effectiveness of eHealth tools for training primary health workers from Nigeria at scale: mixed methods, uncontrolled before-and-after study. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 9, n. 9, e24182, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2196/24182. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34528891/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34528891...
) (Table 3).

Discussion

The studies mapped here on the use of digital technologies by CHW focus on low- and middle-income countries. This characteristic demonstrates the importance of these workers in strengthening healthcare systems, particularly in guaranteeing the right to health for the entire population.

In this regard, it is worth highlighting the role of these professionals in the face of the significant health workforce deficit projected to reach 80 million professionals by 2030, a scenario that can particularly impact living conditions in African and Asian countries (Tulenko et al., 2013TULENKO, Kate et al. Community health workers for universal health-care coverage: from fragmentation to synergy. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, v. 91, n. 11, p. 847-852, 2013. https://doi.org/10.2471%2FBLT.13.118745. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3853952/. Acesso em: 26 nov. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque, 2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ).

The health domain with the highest percentage of reports on the use of digital technologies is focused on aspects of maternal and child health, which is also a recognized field of work for CHW (Hodgins et al., 2021HODGINS, Stephen et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 1. Introduction: tensions confronting large-scale CHW programmes. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 109, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00752-8. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641886/. Acesso em: 16 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641886...
). However, in high-income countries like the USA, the work of these professionals has primarily been centered around guidance on non-communicable chronic diseases, aligning with other analyses (Méllo, Santos and Albuquerque, 2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ; 2023MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; SANTOS, Romário C.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: o que dizem os estudos internacionais? Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, Rio de Janeiro, v. 28, n. 2, p. 501-520, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232023282.12222022. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/674G6vRBymvqsbMRTMYhSDn/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 27 mai. 2023.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/674G6vRBym...
).

Regarding the practices of CHW, it is observed that digital technologies are used to support the typical functions of this profession, such as care coordination, health counseling, social support, health assessment, case and medication management, clinical care in remote areas, monitoring, administration, and health education (Hartzler et al., 2018HARTZLER, Andrea L. et al. Roles and functions of community health workers in primary care. Annals of Family Medicine, v. 16, n. 3, p. 240-245, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.2208. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5951253/. Acesso em: 13 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Glenton, Javadi and Perry, 2021PERRY, Henry B. et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 11. CHWs leading the way to “Health for All”. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 111, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00755-5. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641891/. Acesso em: 13 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641891...
).

Digital technologies in healthcare seem to articulate a new technical process within this profession, through the interaction with medical and informational technologies, shaping new ways for these CHW to establish themselves in the world, considering the local and global aspects in an instantaneous and connected manner. However, the way care is provided in PHC has specific characteristics and occurs through face-to-face encounters. With these digital technologies, however, it transmutes into other possibilities, such as virtual encounters mediated by applications and social networks, giving rise to a new paradigm of care (Rezende et al., 2010REZENDE, Edson J. C. et al. Ética e telessaúde: reflexões para uma prática segura. Pan American Journal of Public Health, v. 28, p. 58-65, 2010. Disponível em: https://www.scielosp.org/pdf/rpsp/2010.v28n1/58-65. Acesso em: 09 ago. 2022.
https://www.scielosp.org/pdf/rpsp/2010.v...
; Caetano et al., 2020CAETANO, Rosângela et al. Desafios e oportunidades para telessaúde em tempos da pandemia pela Covid-19: uma reflexão sobre os espaços e iniciativas no contexto brasileiro. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, v. 36, n. 5, p. 1-16, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00088920. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/swM7NVTrnYRw98Rz3drwpJf. Acesso em: 30 ago. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/swM7NVTrnY...
).

Studies on the Brazilian reality highlight that in-home visits constitute one of the main activities of CHW in PHC. Their contribution to social support, subjective exchange of meanings and experiences is widely recognized, which produces powerful forms of care and access to healthcare. Here, the encounter becomes a privileged space for listening, dialogue, and interpretation of the needs of families and communities, as well as for establishing bridges to address the population’s demands in healthcare or social services (Alonso, Béguin and Duarte, 2021ALONSO, Carolina M. C.; Béguin, Pascal Daniel; DUARTE, Francisco J. C. M. Trabalho dos agentes comunitários de saúde na Estratégia Saúde da Família: metassíntese. Revista de Saúde Pública, v. 52, p. 14, 2018. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.11606/S1518-8787.2018052000395. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/rsp/a/PjNYDyTH3wkVvffVP9cG8Sc/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/rsp/a/PjNYDyTH3w...
; Nepomuceno et al., 2021 NEPOMUCENO, Raquel C. A. et al. O trabalho dos agentes comunitários de saúde à luz da Teoria Comunidades de Prática. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, v. 26, n. 5, p. 1.637-1.646, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232021265.04162021. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/WsgvDVG3gBmZz5Lyr6gNhcc/. Acesso em: 22 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/csc/a/WsgvDVG3gB...
; Costa et al., 2022COSTA, Idária S. S. et al. Processo de trabalho de agentes comunitários e saúde mental: percepções de trabalhadores da saúde de um município do interior do Ceará. Research, Society and Development, v. 11, n. 2, e4711225520, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v11i2.25520. Disponível em: https://redib.org/Record/oai_revista4197-research-society-development. Acesso em: 26 nov. 2022.
https://redib.org/Record/oai_revista4197...
). However, a cautionary note arises based on Schoen et al.’s study (2017SCHOEN, Julia et al. Perspectives and experiences of community health workers in Brazilian primary care centers using m-health tools in home visits with community members. Health Human Resources, v. 15, p. 71, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-017-0245-9. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28962569/. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28962569...
), which suggests that the intensive and uncritical use of technology by community health workers can overshadow the CHW-patient interaction, leading to significant disadvantages. This is because “the way the interaction is structured will reflect how professionals are able to build relationships with users” (Martins and Carbonai, 2022MARTINS, Maique B.; CARBONAI, Davide. Entre o vínculo e o distanciamento: desafios na atuação de agentes comunitárias de saúde. Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, n. 110, e3711001, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/3711001/2022. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/rbcsoc/a/MZMgk5j8JRqTwQxXZvHf68f/?format=pdf⟨=pt. Acesso em: 21 dez. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/rbcsoc/a/MZMgk5j...
, p. 6).

In the management of the work of these professionals, digital technologies emerge as an important vector for qualification, diversification of activities, and large-scale training of the category. This strategy, on the one hand, allows for addressing the challenges arising from the scarce material and financial resources in low-income countries’ healthcare systems (Tulenko et al., 2013TULENKO, Kate et al. Community health workers for universal health-care coverage: from fragmentation to synergy. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, v. 91, n. 11, p. 847-852, 2013. https://doi.org/10.2471%2FBLT.13.118745. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3853952/. Acesso em: 26 nov. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
), in the other hand, it reinforces the duality between universal coverage and universal health systems (Méllo, Albuquerque and Santos, 2022MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D.; ALBUQUERQUE, Paulette C.; SANTOS, Romário C. Conjuntura política brasileira e saúde: do golpe de 2016 à pandemia de Covid-19. Saúde em Debate, v. 46, n. 134, p. 842-856, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104202213418. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/9bxKNJ5bzkDBfNpJ4Xc3ggf/abstract/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. ).

Nevertheless, studies indicate an increase in supervision and direct control over CHW (Neupane et al., 2014NEUPANE, Sunisha et al. Comparing a paper based monitoring and evaluation system to a mHealth system to support the national community health worker programme, South Africa: an evaluation. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, v. 14, p. 69, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6947-14-69. Disponível em: https://bmcmedinformdecismak.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6947-14-69. Acesso em: 14 set. 2022.
https://bmcmedinformdecismak.biomedcentr...
; Thondoo et al., 2015THONDOO, Meelan et al. Potential roles of mHealth for community health workers: formative research with end users in Uganda and Mozambique. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 3, n. 3, p. e76, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.4208. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419/. Acesso em: 28 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419...
; Steege et al., 2018STEEGE, Rosalind et al. The phone is my boss and my helper: a gender analysis of an mHealth intervention with Health extension workers in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health, v. 40, p. ii16-ii31, 2018. Suplemento 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy199. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130/. Acesso em: 30 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130...
; Ilozumba et al., 2018ILOZUMBA, Onaedo et al. “I am not telling. The mobile is telling”: factors influencing the outcomes of a community health worker mhealth intervention in India. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 3, e0194927, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194927. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773/. Acesso em: 22 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773...
; Namatovu and Kanjo, 2019NAMATOVU, Esther; KANJO, Chipo. Visibility in community health work mediated by mobile health systems: a case of Malawi. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, v. 85, e12071, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12071. Disponível em: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/isd2.12071. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full...
; Shah et al., 2019SHAH, Pankaj et al. High uptake of an innovative mobile phone application among community health workers in rural India: an implementation study. The National Medical Journal of India, v. 32, n. 5, p. 262-269, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-258X.295956. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439...
), this reflects in the way this work is carried out. By placing a higher value on tasks linked to technological resources, coupled with increased remuneration based on the achievement of goals and indicators, there is a tendency to prioritize their execution, disregarding qualitative aspects of this work (Morosini and Fonseca, 2018MOROSINI, Márcia V.; FONSECA, Angélica F. Os agentes comunitários na Atenção Primária à Saúde no Brasil: inventário de conquistas e desafios. Saúde em Debate, v. 42, p. 261-274, 2018. Número especial. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-11042018S117. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/CtVJJm7MRgkGKjTRnSd9mxG/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/sdeb/a/CtVJJm7MR...
; Nogueira, 2019NOGUEIRA, Mariana L. Expressões da precarização no trabalho do agente comunitário de saúde: burocratização e estranhamento do trabalho. Saúde e Sociedade, São Paulo, v. 28, n. 3, p. 309-323, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-12902019180783. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/sausoc/a/3p3Hn8ywngS9GWL76FNW7TF/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/sausoc/a/3p3Hn8y...
).

Furthermore, regarding this aspect, Antunes (2021ANTUNES, Ricardo (org.). Uberização, trabalho digital e indústria 4.0. São Paulo: Boitempo, 2021., p. 15) warns about a new dependency of workers in the digital era, “where cell phones, tablets, smartphones, and similar devices increasingly become important instruments of control, supervision, and command.” In this sense, it can potentially reduce the autonomy and creativity of CHW, reinforcing the socio-technical division of labor.

On the other hand, there is evidence that technology has increased the visibility of CHW within the community. This visibility goes beyond simply being seen, as it represents a way of being and existing in the world where their presence is recognized and legitimized (Palazuelos et al., 2013PALAZUELOS, Daniel et al. User perceptions of an mHealth medicine dosing tool for community health workers. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 1, n. 1, e2, 2013. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.2459. Disponível em: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4114471/. Acesso em: 23 set. 2022.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article...
; Gaziano et al., 2015GAZIANO, Thomas et al. Cardiovascular disease screening by community health workers can be cost-effective in low-resource countries. Health Aff (Millwood), v. 34, n. 9, p. 1.538-1.545, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0349. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26355056/. Acesso em: 20 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26355056...
; Thondoo et al., 2015THONDOO, Meelan et al. Potential roles of mHealth for community health workers: formative research with end users in Uganda and Mozambique. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 3, n. 3, p. e76, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.4208. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419/. Acesso em: 28 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26206419...
; Ayiasi et al., 2015AYIASI, Richard M. et al. Use of mobile phone consultations during home visits by community health workers for maternal and newborn care: community experiences from Masindi and Kiryandongo districts, Uganda. BMC Public Health, v. 15, p. 560, 2015. Disponível em: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-1939-3. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.co...
; Tiase et al., 2017TIASE, Victoria L. et al. Assessing Impressions of Community Health Worker Use of Tablet-Based Medication Documentation Software. CIN: Computers, informatics, nursing. v. 35, n. 9, p. 447-451, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1097/cin.0000000000000349. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28353465/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28353465...
; Coetzee et al., 2018COETZEE, Bronwyné et al. Community health workers’ experiences of using video teaching tools during home visits: a pilot study. Health & Social Care in the Community, v. 26, n. 2, p. 167-175, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12488. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210...
; Steege et al., 2018STEEGE, Rosalind et al. The phone is my boss and my helper: a gender analysis of an mHealth intervention with Health extension workers in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health, v. 40, p. ii16-ii31, 2018. Suplemento 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy199. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130/. Acesso em: 30 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130...
; Ilozumba et al., 2018ILOZUMBA, Onaedo et al. “I am not telling. The mobile is telling”: factors influencing the outcomes of a community health worker mhealth intervention in India. PLoS One, v. 13, n. 3, e0194927, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194927. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773/. Acesso em: 22 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29584773...
; Namatovu and Kanjo, 2019NAMATOVU, Esther; KANJO, Chipo. Visibility in community health work mediated by mobile health systems: a case of Malawi. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, v. 85, e12071, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12071. Disponível em: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/isd2.12071. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full...
; Gopalakrishnan et al., 2020 GOPALAKRISHNAN, Lakshmi et al. Using mHealth to improve health care delivery in India: a qualitative examination of the perspectives of community health workers and beneficiaries. PLoS One, v. 15, e0227451, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227451. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31940326...
; Venkataraghavan et al., 2021 VENKATARAGHAVAN, Manjula et al. “Through their eyes, I can work”: rural physicians’ perceptions about mobile phone use among community health workers: a qualitative analysis. Health Education, v. 22, n. 2, p. 180-201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123. Disponível em: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123/full/html. Acesso em: 3 out. 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-12-2020-0123...
; Kinshella et al., 2021KINSHELLA, Mai-Lei W. et al. “Now you have become doctors”: lady health workers experiences implementing an mhealth application in rural Pakistan. Frontiers in Global Women’s Health, v. 2, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2021.645705. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34816199/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34816199...
; Janevic et al., 2021JANEVIC, Mary et al. A pilot study of a chronic pain self-management program delivered by community health workers to underserved African American older adults. Pain Medicine, v. 23, n. 12, p. 1.965-1.978, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnaa468. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33779759/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33779759...
; Adam et al., 2021ADAM, Maya et al. Evaluation of a community-based mobile video breastfeeding intervention in Khayelitsha, South Africa: the philani movie cluster-randomized controlled trial. PLoS Medicine, v. 18, n. 9, e1003744, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003744. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438/. Acesso em:18 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438...
; David, Utulu and Tyndall, 2021DAVID, Nakama; UTULU, Samuel C. A.; TYNDALL, Jeniffer. mHealth: a mediating tool for community health workers’ transformation in armed conflict zones. The African Journal of Information Systems, v. 13, n. 4, p. 493-513, 2021. Disponível em: https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis/vol13/iss4/4/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/ajis...
). The expected outcome is altered power relations among workers, the community, and the State, with the affirmation of professional value and identity (Romagnoli and Samudio, 2017ROMAGNOLI, Roberta C.; SAMUDIO, Jania L. P. Tensões e desafios na relação dos agentes comunitários de saúde com as equipes. Pesquisas e Práticas Psicossociais, v. 12, n. 4, p.1-13, 2017. Disponível em: http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/pdf/ppp/v12n4/07.pdf. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/pdf/ppp/v12n4/...
; Namatovu and Kanjo, 2019NAMATOVU, Esther; KANJO, Chipo. Visibility in community health work mediated by mobile health systems: a case of Malawi. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, v. 85, e12071, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12071. Disponível em: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/isd2.12071. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full...
).

The challenges that arise from the use of technology by CHW, such as inadequate training, low education or motivation, low professional motivation, and insufficient resources, are well described in the literature that addresses government strategies for managing this work (Glenton, Javadi and Perry, 2021PERRY, Henry B. et al. Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 11. CHWs leading the way to “Health for All”. Health Research Policy and Systems, v. 19, p. 111, 2021. Suppl. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00755-5. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641891/. Acesso em: 13 out. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34641891...
). However, some barriers to the implementation of work with digital technologies seem to arise, specifically regarding the quality, access, and connectivity of the internet, provision of electricity, and digital literacy, both for these workers and the population receiving the service. Therefore, the current situation intensifies health inequities due to the digital exclusion that emerges (Méllo et al., 2021MÉLLO, Lívia M. M. D. et al. Agentes comunitárias de saúde: práticas, legitimidade e formação profissional em tempos de pandemia de Covid-19 no Brasil. Interface: Comunicação, Saúde, Educação, v. 25, e210306, 2021. Suplemento 1. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.210306. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHPyYnQYfcG69zKxf/. Acesso em: 10 out. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/F8wfx8yHP...
). Particularly, concerning older populations and CHW, given the evidence discussing the association between aging and challenges in using new information and communication technologies (Mubarak and Suomi, 2022MUBARAK, Farooq; SUOMI, Reima. Elderly forgotten? Digital exclusion in the information age and the rising grey digital divide. Inquiry: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, v. 59, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580221096272. Disponível em: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/00469580221096272. Acesso em: 27 nov. 2022.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10...
).

Regarding workload, studies are divergent, sometimes indicating a reduction (Iyengar and Florez-Arango, 2013IYENGAR, Sriram; FLOREZ-ARANGO, Jose F. Decreasing workload among community health workers using interactive, structured, rich-media guidelines on smartphones. Technology and Health Care, v. 21, n. 2, p. 113-123, 2013. https://doi.org/10.3233/THC-130713. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23510972/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23510972...
; Coetzee et al., 2018COETZEE, Bronwyné et al. Community health workers’ experiences of using video teaching tools during home visits: a pilot study. Health & Social Care in the Community, v. 26, n. 2, p. 167-175, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12488. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210/. Acesso em: 25 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28872210...
; Bhardwaj et al., 2020BHARDWAJ, Anvita et al. Lessons learned through piloting a community-based SMS referral system for common mental health disorders used by female community health volunteers in rural Nepal. BMC Research Notes, v. 13, p. 309, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-020-05148-5. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32611435/. Acesso em: 13 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32611435...
; Adam et al., 2021ADAM, Maya et al. Evaluation of a community-based mobile video breastfeeding intervention in Khayelitsha, South Africa: the philani movie cluster-randomized controlled trial. PLoS Medicine, v. 18, n. 9, e1003744, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003744. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438/. Acesso em:18 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34582438...
), sometimes indicating an increase in this workload (Steege et al., 2018STEEGE, Rosalind et al. The phone is my boss and my helper: a gender analysis of an mHealth intervention with Health extension workers in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Public Health, v. 40, p. ii16-ii31, 2018. Suplemento 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy199. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130/. Acesso em: 30 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551130...
; Mengesha et al., 2018MENGESHA, Wendawek A. et al. Can mHealth improve timeliness and quality of health data collected and used by health extension workers in rural Southern Ethiopia? Journal Public Health, Oxford, v. 40, p. ii74-ii86, 2018. Suppl. 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy200. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131/. Acesso em: 15 set. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30551131...
; Namatovu and Kanjo, 2019NAMATOVU, Esther; KANJO, Chipo. Visibility in community health work mediated by mobile health systems: a case of Malawi. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, v. 85, e12071, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12071. Disponível em: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/isd2.12071. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full...
; Shah et al., 2019SHAH, Pankaj et al. High uptake of an innovative mobile phone application among community health workers in rural India: an implementation study. The National Medical Journal of India, v. 32, n. 5, p. 262-269, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-258X.295956. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32985439...
; Hicks et al., 2021HICKS, Joseph P. et al. Acceptability and potential effectiveness of eHealth tools for training primary health workers from Nigeria at scale: mixed methods, uncontrolled before-and-after study. JMIR mHealth uHealth, v. 9, n. 9, e24182, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2196/24182. Disponível em: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34528891/. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34528891...
). Although it is a reflection that requires further analysis, it points to a historical crossroads. On the one hand, the use of digital technologies can make production processes more efficient, reduce costs, and expand coverage (Pereira and Simonetto, 2018PEREIRA, Adriano; SIMONETTO, Eugênio O. Indústria 4.0: conceitos e perspectivas para o Brasil. Revista da Universidade Vale do Rio Verde, v. 16, p. 1-9, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5892/ruvrd.v16i1.4938. Disponível em: http://periodicos.unincor.br/index.php/revistaunincor/article/view/4938. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
http://periodicos.unincor.br/index.php/r...
; Venturini, Pinto and Oliveira-Neto, 2021VENTURINI, Glória F. P.; PINTO, Luiz F. R.; OLIVEIRA-NETO, Geraldo C. O. Aplicação de tecnologias habilitadoras de indústria 4.0 na área da saúde: uma revisão sistemática. Revista Valore, v. 6, e-2015, 2021. https://doi.org/10.22408/reva602021561%25p. Disponível em: https://revistavalore.emnuvens.com.br/valore/article/view/561. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://revistavalore.emnuvens.com.br/va...
), on the other hand, there is no consensus regarding the benefits of this technological incorporation for healthcare and the professional valorization of these workers.

The emergence of new skills and practices for CHW through the use of digital technologies in healthcare makes it urgent to consider the meanings of this change in the very constitution of these professionals as individuals and workers in a technological revolution reality. The paths presented for this profession through transformations in the world of work raise the following questions: a) rather than responding to health needs, in the current cycle of capitalism, the technological revolution may primarily cater to market needs, further precarizing and objectifying these workers, reducing them to mere sources of extracting surplus value in the digital world (Souza and Mendonça, 2017SOUZA, Diego O.; MENDONÇA, Henrique P. F. Work, social being and health care: an approach from Marx and Lukács. Interface: Comunicação Saúde Educação, Botucatu, v. 21, n. 62, p. 543-552, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-57622016.0482. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/pxzHqFpbbkQ3ZYYhD4YBsDR/abstract/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/pxzHqFpbb...
); or b) whether they will be recognized as indispensable professionals for the reorientation of the healthcare model towards comprehensive, territorial, and community-based care (Gomes et al., 2010GOMES, Karine O. et al. O agente comunitário de saúde e a consolidação do Sistema Único de Saúde: reflexões contemporâneas. Physis: Revista de Saúde Coletiva, Rio de Janeiro, v. 20, n. 4, p. 1.143-1.164, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-73312010000400005. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/physis/a/pH8P6Tsn9xwQCVZdtgvYXWg/abstract/?lang=pt. Acesso em: 25 nov. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/physis/a/pH8P6Ts...
).

A hint about the future of work in this digital era, even for CHW seems to emerge in the critical analyses pointed out by Antunes (2020ANTUNES, Ricardo. O privilégio da servidão: o novo proletariado de serviços na era digital. 2. ed. São Paulo: Boitempo, 2020.), as these technologies do not have the capacity to eliminate the workforce but rather exacerbate the contours of precarity. It involves the working class in a new morphology, amplifying exploitation, control, repetition, and alienation.

In this context, there is a risk of a path towards technological mediation supported by a double dehumanization, the individual receiving assistance is reduced to the disease they have or to a mere consumer of a service, with their health being alienated from themselves. And the healthcare worker, in turn, has their subjectivity (intelligence, analytical power, creativity) subordinated to technology (Souza, 2021SOUZA, Diego O. Cuidado em saúde e alienação: relação mediada pela tecnologia. Interface: Comunicação Saúde Educação, Botucatu, v. 25, e200776, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.200776. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/9cBzQ96V6KT8mRpX5VnKt4p/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 22 dez. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/9cBzQ96V6...
, p. 7).

Lastly, as Graham and Anwar (2021GRAHAM, Mark; ANWAR, Mohammad A. Trabalho digital. In: ANTUNES, Ricardo (org). Uberização, trabalho digital e indústria 4.0. São Paulo: Boitempo, 2021. p. 47-58.) further reflect upon If workers can perform their work based on information, without the need for direct contact with the object of work, and if this information can be transmitted around the world, then theoretically, this work can be done from anywhere and by anyone (Graham and Anwar, 2021GRAHAM, Mark; ANWAR, Mohammad A. Trabalho digital. In: ANTUNES, Ricardo (org). Uberização, trabalho digital e indústria 4.0. São Paulo: Boitempo, 2021. p. 47-58., p. 47).

Thus, it must be considered that digital technologies in healthcare have brought about adjustments that appear to be disruptive not only to the conditions of work but also to the forms of care production and contact with healthcare service users.

The overcoming of these consequences in the world of work will involve the establishment of alternative ways to analyze and address increasingly complex health needs. These approaches should be based on cognitive foundations and rationalities that are not implicated in the exploitation of labor and capitalist development. Even in a digital scenario with extensive use of technologies, it is crucial that the working conditions and training of these professionals promote their autonomy, strengthen human relationships, and foster a critical awareness of their role in the development of their work. But this will only happen, too, if the class struggle is in line with the fight for universal health (Souza, 2021SOUZA, Diego O. Cuidado em saúde e alienação: relação mediada pela tecnologia. Interface: Comunicação Saúde Educação, Botucatu, v. 25, e200776, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1590/interface.200776. Disponível em: https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/9cBzQ96V6KT8mRpX5VnKt4p/?lang=pt#. Acesso em: 22 dez. 2022.
https://www.scielo.br/j/icse/a/9cBzQ96V6...
).

Conclusion

The results synthesized in this review support analyses regarding the irreversibility of the use of information and communication technologies in the world of work. Digital technologies in the practices of CHW appear to be an important strategy in the development of actions and healthcare.

Regarding the publication period of the articles, it is noted that the initial search was not conducted with a specific time frame in order to identify the earliest publications on the topic. In this regard, the first mapped article dates back to 2010, with the highest annual production concentrated in 2018 (13 articles or 20.6%), encompassing the production of the four years (2018, 2019, 2020, and 2021), which accounted for 70% of the total publications. While a larger number of publications was identified during the mentioned period, and there are some hypotheses that justify this finding, such as the increased use of digital technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic or the advancement of technologies in the healthcare field, further research is needed to identify the conditions, determinants, and consequences of using these technologies in the healthcare sector.

The benefits of using digital technologies in healthcare present two perspectives. In the first perspective, there is an expansion of access to PHC, but further studies are needed to understand the impacts on the attributes that characterize this level of care, particularly continuity of care and territorial bonding. The second perspective relates to the changes in the work of CHW, including qualification, diversification, expanded training, and the gaining of legitimacy for the profession.

The challenges, in turn, reaffirm old and new problems, with a particular focus on those specific to the new configuration of work: limited digital literacy among professionals and the community; inadequate electricity supply in territories, preventing the charging of cell phones or tablets; and issues related to internet connectivity.

Regarding the workload that is influenced by technology, the mapped articles diverge on whether it increases or decreases, also lacking further analysis to understand to what extent the integration of digital technologies would constitute another factor of work precariousness.

Additionally, it is suggested to develop studies that address the new configurations of this community work, taking into consideration the mediation of technology use in dimensions such as care, surveillance, education, communication in health, social mobilization, and intersectoral coordination.

Lastly, policymakers, when planning health actions and services that involve community health workers as a key element, need to consider, in the decision-making process of technological incorporation, a clear understanding of their potentialities regarding the following aspects: access to health for remote populations; decentralization of care, establishment and strengthening of health networks, and the possibility of remote monitoring and training; as well as the limits that conform in the little establishment of the territorial bond; access to equipment and connectivity; in addition to the costs associated with the incorporation of these technologies.

It is also important to highlight that any technological advancement should be ensured from the perspective of enhancing the responses of health systems and services to the health needs of populations, particularly in contexts where inequalities are deepened and where the complexity of problems requires equally complex and intersectoral.

Referências

  • Financing

    The research received funding from the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (Capes - in Portuguese), through a master’s scholarship (funding code 001) granted to Romário Correia dos Santos.
  • Previous presentation

    This article is the result of the master’s thesis entitled “Work process of community health agents in the context of the technological revolution 4.0”, authored by Romário Correia dos Santos, linked to the Postgraduate Program in Collective Health of the Institute of Collective Health of the Universidade Federal da Bahia, with thesis defense scheduled for January 2024.

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    10 July 2023
  • Date of issue
    2023

History

  • Received
    13 Jan 2023
  • Accepted
    03 May 2023
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