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Efficiency of RAPD and ISSR markers in assessing genetic variation in Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Chenopodiaceae)

Abstract

The goal of this study was to investigate the molecular characterization of A. macrostachyum genotypes grown in the Western coast of Syria using RAPD and ISSR techniques. PCR amplifications with 20 RAPD primers gave an average of 9.25 selected markers/ primer, with a maximum of 17 (OPG05) and a minimum of four (OPA02). Percentage of polymorphic bands ranged from 40 to 100% according to RAPD primers tested. Among the 185 selected bands, 160 (84.96%) were polymorphic. The amplification with seven ISSR primers generated 88 bands, and 80 (90.91%) were polymorphic. (CA)8RG and (AG)8GTG ISSR primers tested in this study yielded highly informative patterns. RAPD and ISSR fragment sizes ranged from 0.2-3 kb. Based on this study, the use of RAPD and ISSR fingerprints could be a powerful tool to assess the genetic diversity in A. macrostachyum. Both the techniques gave similar results regarding the degree of relatedness among the genotypes tested, with genotype 2 being suggested to represent a distinct subspecies from that of genotypes 1 and 3.

A. macrostachyum; genetic diversity; genotype; ISSR; polymorphism; RAPD


AGRICULTURE, AGRIBUSINESS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

Efficiency of RAPD and ISSR markers in assessing genetic variation in Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Chenopodiaceae)

Basel Saleh** Author for correspondence: bsaleh@aec.org.sy.in

Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, AECS, P.O. Box 6091, Damascus - Syria

ABSTRACT

The goal of this study was to investigate the molecular characterization of A. macrostachyum genotypes grown in the Western coast of Syria using RAPD and ISSR techniques. PCR amplifications with 20 RAPD primers gave an average of 9.25 selected markers/ primer, with a maximum of 17 (OPG05) and a minimum of four (OPA02). Percentage of polymorphic bands ranged from 40 to 100% according to RAPD primers tested. Among the 185 selected bands, 160 (84.96%) were polymorphic. The amplification with seven ISSR primers generated 88 bands, and 80 (90.91%) were polymorphic. (CA)8RG and (AG)8GTG ISSR primers tested in this study yielded highly informative patterns. RAPD and ISSR fragment sizes ranged from 0.2-3 kb. Based on this study, the use of RAPD and ISSR fingerprints could be a powerful tool to assess the genetic diversity in A. macrostachyum. Both the techniques gave similar results regarding the degree of relatedness among the genotypes tested, with genotype 2 being suggested to represent a distinct subspecies from that of genotypes 1 and 3.

Key words:A. macrostachyum, genetic diversity, genotype, ISSR, polymorphism, RAPD

INTRODUCTION

The Salicornioideae (14-16 genera, c. 90 species) is a remarkable subfamily of Chenopodiaceae that is notable for its hygrohalophytic ecology associated with particular anatomical, morphological, and physiological adaptations (Kadereit et al., 2006). Thesubfamily Salicornioideae Kostel. (Chenopodiaceae Juss. APG, 2003), more commonly known as samphires its distinctive reduced succulent leaves, which may be modified to form an articulated, photosynthetic stem (de Fraine, 1912). Recent molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the sister group relationship of the Salicornioideae is equivocal. Bienertia cycloptera Bunge (subfamily Suaedoideae Ulbr.) was placed as a sister species to the monophyletic Salicornioideae based on both nrDNA Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) sequence data (Schütze et al., 2003) and cpDNA rbcL sequences (Kadereit et al., 2003). However, Bienertia cycloptera was placed as sister to Suaeda Forsk. ex. Scop. in the same study by Schütze et al. (2003) based on the analysis of cpDNA atpB-rbcL cpDNA sequence data. The lack of a clear sister group precludes the analysis of character evolution within the Salicornioideae. Taxonomic confusion is exacerbated by the occurrence of species complexes (Wilson, 1980) and polyploids (Contandriopoulos, 1968; Shepherd and Yan, 2003).

A close alliance between the Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae has long been recognized because of a number of synapomorphic characters, including similar floral characteristics, embryogeny, phytochemistry, sieve-element plastids, and pollen morphology (Townsend, 1993; Judd and Ferguson, 1999). Molecular phylogenetic analyses confirm this close relationship (Soltis et al., 2000; Kadereit et al., 2003). Currently, the Chenopodiaceae has been placed into synonymy under Amaranthaceae by some authors (APG, 1998; 2003), although the exact phylogenetic relationships of this alliance still remain unclear. Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) Moris., occurs in almost pure stands in the coastal region and it is a typical species in the salt marshes of the Mediterranean region (Vicente et al., 2007). In the coastal and inland salt steppes of SE Spain, it occasionally occurs with other species such as Halimione portulacoides (L) Aellen, Suaeda Forsskal ex JF Gmelin, Suaeda pruinosa Lange, Limonium spp. Mill, Inula chritmoides L (Pujol et al., 2000). Wilson (1980) proposed that the genus Arthrocnemum was a possible intermediate between Sarcocornia and the Australian endemic genera based on morphological characters shared with both the groups. The monophyly of the Australian endemic genera supports their separation from Arthrocnemum (Wilson, 1980; 1984). However, the phylogenetic position of A. macrostachyum is not fully resolved.

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers (Williams et al., 1990; Singh et al., 2006) and ISSR markers (Okun et al., 2008) are two molecular typing approaches that have been used to detect the variation among the plants. Each method has been used extensively to identify and determine the relationships at the species and cultivar levels (Raina et al., 2001; Martins et al., 2003). ISSR analysis has been used for the cultivar identification in numerous plant species, including rice (Joshi et al., 2000), apple (Goulão and Oliveira, 2001) and strawberry (Arnau et al., 2003). ISSR-PCR gives multilocus patterns which are very reproducible, abundant and polymorphic in plant genomes (Bornet and Branchard, 2004). Comparison of ISSR and other PCR-based markers have shown their efficiency in plant breeding (Adams et al., 2003; Archak et al., 2003; Galvan et al., 2003). A. macrostachyum is widely distributed mainly in Mediterranean and Saharo-Arabian, extending far into adjacent regions (Zohary, 1966). Mouterde (1966) however, did not mention the occurrence of this species in Syria. Up tell now, most variability/taxonomic affinity studies in A. macrostachyum have focused mainly on the morphology, and a limited work has been carried out so far with nuclear DNA diversity. Currently, the exact phylogenetic relationships within the A. macrostachyum species are still unclear. Accordingly, currently the traditional taxonomic classification is followed for this species. A great degree of taxonomic confusion exists in regard to A. macrostachyum species. Molecular phylogenetic techniques were used with the hope that they could more readily elucidate the phylogenetic relationships within this species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plant materials

Three genotypes of this species can be found in Syria and are located in the Western littoral salines coast at 12 km to North of Lattakia, providing source of samples for DNA extraction. Samples were collected in spring from the plants spread on the rocky and sandy soil with salinity estimated at an EC of 70 ds/m, and annual rainfall ranging from 650 to 700 mm. The genomic DNA of the plant was extracted from young leaves of three genotypes (samples) preventative of A. macrostachyum species in Syria (bulk of 5 plants for each representative genotype) by a CTAB (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) protocol.

Primer RAPD, ISSR designs and combinations

To match more loci at the genomic level, 20 RAPD primers were tested. A set of 20 random 10-mer primers was used for detecting the polymorphism among three genotypes of A. macrostachyum. The ISSR primers used in this study were dinucleotides with eight repeat units and one anchoring base, e.g., (AC)8T, or two anchoring base, e.g., (AG)8TC; or three anchoring base (AG)8GTG and trinucleotides with five repeat units such as (CAG)5 and (CAA)5 or tetranucleotides with four repeat e.g. (GACA)4.

DNA amplification conditions and gel electrophoresis

For RAPD and ISSR markers, the amplification reaction was carried out in 25μL reaction volume containing 1xPCR buffer, 2 mM MgCl2, 0.25 mM dNTPs, 25 ng primer (Operon Technologies Inc. USA), 1.5 unit of Taq DNA polymerase and 30 ng template DNA. PCR amplification was performed in a T-gradient thermal cycler (Bio-Rad; T Gradient). It was programmed to fulfill 42 cycles (for RAPD analysis) or 35 cycles (for ISSR analysis) after an initial denaturation cycle for 4 min at 94 ºC. Each cycle consisted of a denaturation step 1 min at 94 ºC, an annealing step for 2 min at 35 ºC (for RAPD analysis) or 52 ºC (for ISSR analysis), and an extension step at 72 ºC for to 2 min, followed by extension cycle for 7 min at 72 ºC in the final cycle. The PCR products were separated on a 1.5% (for RAPD analysis) or 1.8% (for ISSR analysis) ethidium bromide- stained agarose (Bio-Rad) in 0.5xTBE buffer. Electrophoresis was performed for 3 h at 85V and visualized with a UV transilluminator.

RAPD and ISSR data analysis

The presence or absence of each size class was scored as 1 or 0, respectively. The percent disagreement value (PDVs) found were used to generate a matrix via the Unweighted Pair Group Mean Arithmetic average (UPGMA) using Statistica program (Statsoft, 2003). This matrix was used to calculate similarity/genetic distance (Jaccard, 1908). Polymorphic information content (PIC) values were calculated for each RAPD and ISSR primer according to the formula: PIC = 1-Σ(Pij)2 , where Pij is the frequency of the ith pattern revealed by the jth primer summed across all patterns revealed by the primers (Botstein et al., 1980).

RESULTS

The amplification products produced from RAPD and ISSR primers are listed in Table 1 in terms of the percentage of PCR products appeared in the genotypes studied. Most of markers were obtained with the OPG05 primer. The RAPD analysis carried out on the three genotypes of A. macrostachyum produced a large number of distinct fragments for each primer. The 20 selected arbitrary primers generated a total of 185 scorable bands of which 160 were polymorphic, with an average of 9.25 amplicons/primer. OPG05 gave the highest number of fragments (17 amplicons), while OPA02 revealed the least number (4 amplicons). Fig. 1 shows the RAPD profile for the three genotypes yielded by OPA18, OPB01, OPC08, OPC15, OPE04, OPE18, OPG05, OPQ18, OPR12 and OPV03. For ISSR markers, a total of 88 bands were generated, among which 80 bands were polymorphic. The percentage of polymorphic bands ranged between 66.66% for (CAG)5 primer and 100% for (CA)8RG and (AG)8GTG primers. Fig. 2 showed that amplification with the latter two ISSR primers yielded highly informative patterns.



DISCUSSION

PCR amplifications from the 20 RAPD primers gave an average of 9.25 selected markers /primer. Amplification products were obtained in the range of 4-17. For OPG05 primer, the highest number of fragments (17 amplicons) was detected, while OPA02 primer revealed the least number (4 amplicons). A total of 185 amplicons were generated by the tested primers with an average of 9.25 amplicons/primer. Behera et al. (2008) reported an average of 7.17 markers/ primer in Indian bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.). However, Singh et al. (2006) demonstrated that the generation of RAPD fragments ranged from 8 to 13 in Solanum, thus with an average of 10.28 bands /primer. Such a high variation in the number of fragments produced by these arbitrary primers could be attributed to the differences in the binding sites throughout genome of the genotypes included. The total number of polymorphic observed bands was 160 with an average of 7.95 polymorphic amplicons/ primer. This represented a level of polymorphism of 84.96% (Table 1). With regards to ISSR markers, the present results showed that the seven ISSR tested primers revealed high polymorphic bands. Fingerprinting showed a total number of 88 unambiguous DNA fragments with an average of 12.57 fragments/ primer. The number of polymorphic bands ranged between 6 and 15 /primer with an average of 11.42 polymorphic bands/ primer. The total number of polymorphic amplicons produced by the tested primers was 80, thus representing a level of polymorphism of 90.91% (Table 1). These results indicated that the percentage of ISSR (90.91%) was more important than of RAPD polymorphic bands (84.96%). The mean number of RAPD bands (9.25) was less than of ISSR (12.57); the mean number of RAPD polymorphic bands (7.95) was also less than of ISSRs (11.42). Bornet and Branchard (2004) reported the generation of 13 to 26 markers in Brassica and Arabidopsis thaliana by ISSR primers. Both of RAPD and ISSR fragments ranged from 0.2 to 3 kb. The generated 600, 1000 and 1200 bp DNA fragments by RAPD OPQ18 were characteristic for the three genotypes tested. The RAPD OPE18 produced a specific product of about 700 and 1000 bp in genotype 2 only (Fig. 1). The ISSR with (CAG)5 primer amplified the DNA fragments of 600 and 800 bp representative of the three genotypes tested (Fig. 2). The genetic similarity (GS) values generated from RAPD markers varied between 0.181 and 0.562 with an average of 0.543. The minimum GS value derived between the genotype 1 and 2 and the maximum GS value was between genotype 1 and 3. A similar trend was achieved using the ISSR markers but with lower GS values with a range of 0.162 to 0.452 and an average of 0.511 (Table 2).

These results were in accordance with the well recognized assumption for the role of anchoring base number in detecting the pear phylogeny (Monte-Corvo et al., 2001). The dinucleotide yielded highly informative patterns compared to those tri- and tetratnucleotide. In the present study, tri- ISSR (CAG)5 primer generated the lowest percentage of polymorphic markers (66.66%). Previously, in rice plants (Oryza sativa L.), the dinucleotide repetitive sequence primers were found to be more amenable to ISSR analysis than the tri-, tetra-, and pentanucleotide primers (Blair et al., 1999). Some researchers have demonstrated that anchoring primers at their 3' ends lowered the number of sequences which had homology to the primers, thus producing distinct bands (Parsons et al., 1997). The success in amplifying the specific bands also depends on the anchoring motif (Pharmawati et al., 2005). An especially attractive feature of ISSR analysis is its flexibility in terms of experimental design: the number of generated amplicons may be optimized by changing the number of the core repeat units and anchoring bases (Liu and Wendel, 2001).

For ISSR markers, the percentage of polymorphic bands ranged between 66.66% with (CAG)5 and 100% with (CA)8RG (Hou et al., 2005) and (AG)8GTG (Bornet and branchard, 2004). The PIC values detected by RAPD primers ranged from 0.178 in OPR09 to 0.445 in OPB01, OPC13 and OPC15, while, in ISSR marker, it ranged from 0.259 in (CAG)5 to 0.445 in (AG)8GTG and (CA)8RG primers. The ISSR markers exhibited a relatively higher PIC average (0.395) compared to RAPD markers (0.377). In this regard, Manimekalai et al. (2006) found that the mean PIC value for the ISSR was higher than the mean PIC observed with the RAPD technique (0.31 and 0.23, respectively) in coconut (Cocos nucifera L). In this respect, similar findings were reported by Hou et al. (2005) in barley. A dendrogram showing the relationships among the three genotypes was constructed by the UPGMA clustering method and as shown in Fig. 3.


The pattern generated for RAPD or ISSR data demonstrated that the three genotypes of A. macrostachyum clustered into two clusters. The first contained genotypes 1 and 3 that were closely related at PDV=0.29 (Similarity 0.562) in the case of RAPD and PDV=0.39 (Similarity 0.452) in the case of ISSR fingerprint (Tables 2-3).

   

The second contained genotype 2. In the present investigation, it was obvious that the dendrogram based on RAPD markers was in accord with the dendrogram based on ISSR markers. In general, the efficiency of a molecular marker technique depends on the amount of polymorphism that could be detected among the set of accessions investigated. In the present study, ISSR fingerprinting was more efficient than the RAPD assay. The latter detected 90.91% polymorphic DNA markers among the three analyzed genotypes, compared with 84.96% for RAPD fingerprinting. Similar results were obtained for several other plant species such as in peanut (Arachis hypogaea) (Raina et al., 2001), wild rice Oryza granulate (Qian et al., 2001), and Picea sp (Nkongolo et al., 2005). The present results were also in accordance with the observation by Fernández et al. (2002); Tanyolac (2003) and Hou et al. (2005) in barley. In the Western coast of Syria, the three accessions formed dense communities and were collected from the same region. Thus, the polymorphism observed among these three accessions could not be due to the geographic distribution. The present results represented the first genetic study of A. macrostachyum species in Syria. Additional data, especially from the morphological traits, could provide useful information on the variation and classification of this species. In the Western coast of Syria, it often forms densely monodominant communities or co-occurs with other species such as Halimione portulacoides (L) Aellen, Inula chritmoides L. and Juncus acutus L.

In conclusion, the use of RAPD and ISSR could be a powerful tool to assess the genetic diversity in A. macrostachyum. This study provided new information at the molecular level for the genetic variability of A. macrostachyum and for a general phylogenetic relationship among the three genotypes of this species. This study showed that A. macrostachyum genotype 2 was too genetically distinct from the two other tested genotypes. According to the dendrogram based on RAPD and ISSR markers, it could be suggested that A. macrostachyum genotype 2 belonged to a subspecies that was different from that of the other genotypes 1 and 3. The taxonomy of the Australian representatives of the Salicorniodeae is complicated by the presence of large subspecies complexes, as well as putative hybrids (Wilson, 1980). Polyploidy is also evident at both the species and subspecies level (Shepherd and Yan, 2003). In the present work, the RAPD and ISSR analysis allowed for a somewhat extensive subspecies partitioning within A. macrostachyum which was often in concordance with the known pedigree information. Future studies on the population and evolutionary genetics of the A. macrostachyum would be needed since these accessions presented considerable interest for the genetic studies and plant improvement. Moreover, they have a potential use for reclamation of salt affected lands, a major problem in Mediterranean basin.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank Prof. Othman I, Director General of AECS and Prof. MirAli N, Head of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Department for their support, and also to the Plant Biotechnology group for technical assistance.

Received: August 30, 2010; Revised: January 25, 2011; Accepted: July 22, 2011.

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  • Publication Dates

    • Publication in this collection
      01 Nov 2011
    • Date of issue
      Oct 2011

    History

    • Reviewed
      25 Jan 2011
    • Received
      30 Aug 2010
    • Accepted
      22 July 2011
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