LINGUISTICS IN BRAZILIAN AND SOVIET TEXTBOOKS

Grillo, Sheila Vieira de Camargo

Sheila Vieira de Camargo Grillo

Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas, São Paulo - SP - Brasil. sheilagrillo@uol.com.br.

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0480-2660

BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. [Introduction to Linguistic Studies] 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].

This textbook intends to be a guide for students in the first year of their Language and Literature course in our Colleges. While still unaccustomed to navigating foreign bibliographies and under the impact of an almost entirely new discipline, it is natural that the student is unable to produce sufficiently or, even becomes discouraged. Concerned with giving students the essential elements to understand linguistics and carry out future research in this field, we endeavor to accomplish this small task containing what we judge to be indispensable for an introduction to the Science of language. […] Aiming to put interested parties up to date with the essentials, we purposefully avoid issues that are widely debatable or debated, while acknowledging their problematics. Thus, this textbook does not entail novelty, as it is a simple work of general compilations, and as such, relies on the authority of great masters such as Saussure, Meillet, Vendryès, Martinet, Sapir, Gray, Matoso Câmara and many others. (p.3-4, our translation)¹⁰ 10 Original: Este manual pretende ser um roteiro para osalunos de primeira série dos cursos de Letras de nossas faculdades. Ainda mal habituado ao manejo de bibliografia estrangeira e sob o impacto de uma disciplina quase totalmente nova, é natural que o estudante não produza o suficiente ou, então, desanime. Com a preocupação de dar aos alunos aqueleselementos essenciais para a compreensão da linguística e realização de pesquisas futuras nesse campo, intentamoseste trabalhinho contendo o que julgamos indispensávelpara uma introdução à ciência da linguagem. […] Com o intuito de pôr os interessados a par do essencial, propositadamenteevitamos as questões muito discutíveis ou discutidas, não sem lembrar a sua problemática. Assim, este manual não encerra novidades, pois é umsimples trabalho de compilação gerale, como tal, apoia-se na autoridade de grandes mestres como Saussure, Meillet, Vendryès, Martinet, Sapir, Gray, Gleason,Matoso Câmarae muitos outros. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.3-4).

KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral- General Linguistics]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.

The General Linguistics course broadens and deepens the general linguistic preparation of our undergraduate students in the College of Languages and Literatures: it raises their level of theory, presents the main linguistic trends and schools, introduces them to the problematics of contemporary linguistics, providing methodological instruments and methods of linguistic analysis, and better preparation for undergraduates in creative and practical activities in the fields of Education, Culture and Science. (p.3, our translation)¹¹ 11 Original: Курс общего языкознания расширяет и углубляет общеязыковедческую подготовку выпускников филологических факультетов: поднимает их теоретический уровень, знакомит с основными лингвистическими направлениями и школами, вводит в проблематику современной лингвистики, вооружает методологией и методикой лингвистического анализа, способствует лучшей подготовке выпускника к творческой практической деятельности в области просвещения, культуры и науки. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.3).
In the manual, the main stages in the history of linguistics, its main guidelines and schools are presented, the fundamental problems of contemporary linguistic theory are outlined, methods and procedures of linguistic analysis are described. Special attention is given to the contribution of national linguistics to linguistic theory and practice. (p.2, our translation)¹² 12 Original: В учебнике освещаются главные этапы история лингвистики и её ведущие направления и школы, характеризуются основные проблемы современного теоретического языкознания, описываются различные методы и приёмы лингвистического анализа. Особое внимание обращено на вклад отечественного языкознания в теорию и практику мировой лингвистики. Лингвистическая проблематика рассматривается в свете общей теории познания и развития современных наук. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.2).

BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. [Introduction to Linguistic Studies] 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].

Part I – Generalities
Chapter I –Linguistic Studies: Objectives
Chapter II – The History of Linguistics: 1 – Grammatical phase – Greek and Roman grammar, Hindu grammar, Grammar in the Middle Ages; 2 – Philosophical phase; 3- Comparativism phase. The Neogrammarians; 4 – modern linguistics – Indo-European, Roman, German. Slavic philology. General linguistics; 5 – Linguistics and philology.
Chapter III – Linguistics
Chapter IV –Language
Chapter V – The languages of the world
Chapter VI – Historical linguistics
Chapter VII – Linguistic methods
Part II – The Structure of the language
Chapter I – Phonetics
Chapter II – Morphology
Chapter III – Syntax
Chapter IV – Lexicon
Vocabulary of linguistic terms
Authors cited
Bibliography (our translation)¹⁶ 16 Original: Primeira parte – Generalidades Capítulo I – Objetivos dos estudos lingüísticos Capítulo II – História da lingüística: 1 – A fase da gramática – a gramática na Grécia e em Roma, a gramática hindu, a gramática na Idade Média; 2 – A fase da filosofia; 3 – A fase do comparativismo. Os neogramáticos; 4 – A linguística moderna – indoeuropeística, romanística, germanística. A filolofia eslava. A lingüística geral; 5 – Lingüística e filologia Capítulo III – A lingüística Capítulo IV – A língua Capítulo V – As línguas do mundo Capítulo VI – A lingüística histórica Capítulo VII – Métodos lingüísticos Segunda parte – Estrutura da linguagem Capítulo I – Fonética Capítulo II – Morfologia Capítulo III – Sintaxe Capítulo IV – Léxico Vocabulário de termos linguísticos Relação de autores citados Bibliografia (BORBA, 1970 [1967])

KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.

Part I – The History of Linguistics
Chapter 1 – From classical philology to the linguistics of the 18th century Chapter 2 – Historical-comparative linguistics and the philosophy of language
Chapter 3 – Psychological and logical linguistics
Chapter 4 – The Sociology of language and the neogrammatic approachr Chapter 5 – Linguistics in the 20th century and structuralism
Chapter 6 – Soviet Linguistics
Part II – The theory of language
Chapter 7 – The signifying and non-signifying properties of language Chapter 8 – Language as system (A língua como sistema Chapter 9 – Language and thought)
Chapter 10 – Language and Society
Chapter 11 – Language and history
Part III – Linguistic Methods
Chapter 12. Forms of knowledge and linguistic methods
Chapter 13. Descriptive method
Chapter 14. Comparative method (our translation)¹⁷ 17 Original: История языкознания От филологии древности до языкознания XVIII в. Сравнительно-историческое языкознание и философия языка Логическое и психологическое языкознание Социология языка и неограматизм Языкознание XX в. и структурализм Советское языкознание Теория языка Знаковые и незнаковые свойства языка Язык как система Язык и мышление Язык и общество Язык и история Методы языкознания Способы познания и методы лигвистики Описательный метод Сравнительный метод (KODUKHOV, 1974, summary)

BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. [Introduction to Linguistic Studies] 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].

It is said that, in a country like Brazil, where almost everything has yet to be done, one must not waste time with teaching (and research?) of disciplines that do not have any immediate practical application and whose only scope is intellectual pleasure. Only countries saturated with civilization can give themselves this luxury. Linguistics would be one such case. (p.7, our translation).¹⁹ 19 Original: Já se tem ouvido dizer que, num país como o Brasil, onde quase tudo está por fazer, não se deve perder tempo com o ensino (e a pesquisa?) de disciplinas sem nenhuma aplicação prática imediata e cujo escopo único é o deleite intelectual. Só os países saturados de civilização podem dar-se a tais luxos. A linguística estaria neste caso. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.7).

KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.

Each Science has a history, and new knowledges are the accumulation of others already known in the direction of their development and former changes, which are in some cases entirely fundamental. The history of linguistics shows that it cannot be developed isolated from other sciences, that in the linguistic arena, gives rise to the struggle between philosophical materialism and idealism, between the dialectic and the metaphysical. (p.4, our translation).²⁰ 20 Original: Каждая наука имеет свою историю, и новые знания являются аккумуляцией уже известных, их дальнейшим развитием и видоизменением, в ряде случаев весьма существенным. История лингвистики показывает, что языкознание не может развиваться изолированно от других наук, что на лингвистической арене также проявляется борьба материалистической философии с идеализмом, диалектики с метафизикой. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.4).

BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. [Introduction to Linguistic Studies] 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].

e) General linguistics - Beside Bopp, as a precursor of general linguistics we can cite Humboldt who has a concept of language that is both historical and philological. He occupied himself with the origin of language and did not deduce that it had emerged from absolute necessity, albeit a human necessity. He made important considerations with respect to the classification of the languages, as he was versed in extensive linguistic knowledge (Basque, American languages, Malay-Polynesian languages). […] Humboldt represents an advance in relation to the philosophy of language and general grammar of the former era, but despite broadening our view with the ingenious work of his intelligence, it is, from a purely linguistic point of view, somewhat separated from the empiricism of our time because of its abstractions and even mysticism. (p.32, our translation).²² 22 Original: e) Linguística geral – Ao lado de Bopp, podemos citar como precursor da linguística geral, Humboldt que tem um conceito de língua ao mesmo tempo histórico e filológico. Ocupou-se da origem da linguagem e não deduz que ela tenha nascido de absoluta necessidade, embora seja uma necessidade humana. Fez importantes considerações a respeito da classificação das línguas, pois era dono de extensos conhecimentos linguísticos (basco, línguas americanas, línguas malaio-polinésicas). […] Humboldt representa um progresso em relação à filosofia da linguagem e à gramática geral da época anterior, mas, apesar de ampliar nossa visão com o genial trabalho de sua inteligência, está, do puro ponto de vista linguístico, algum tanto separado do empirismo de nosso tempo por causa de suas abstrações e até misticismo. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.32).

KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.

V. Humboldt (1767-1835) released the philosophical fundamentals of historical-comparative and typological linguistics. […] The importance of Humboldt in linguistics can be compared to the influence of Kant and Hegel in the development of philosophy, although Humboldt is closer to Hegel. Unlike Kant, Humboldt spoke about the logic verbal thought (and not purely logical). He considered that the language functioned as a mark of the objects and as a means of communication. And seeing that language is a complex and contradictory phenomenon, its isolated aspects can only be understood if a methodology of the particular and the general any monies are applied. The fundamental contradictions the researcher of language encounters is the contradiction between the subjective and the objective, language and thought, activity and things, the general (collective) and the particular (individual). […] Humboldt held that linguistics must have its philosophical base, the philosophy of the language, constructed on the solid basis of the analysis of different languages. (p.25, our translation).²³ 23 Original: Философские основы сравнительно-исторического и типологического языкознания заложил В. Гумбольдт (1767-1835) […] Значение Гумбольдта для языкознания можно сравнить с влиянием на развитие философии Канта и Гегеля, причём Гумбольдт более похож на Гегеля. В отличие от Канта, Гумбольдт говорил о вербально-логическом (а не чисто логическом) мышлении. Язык, считал он, функционирует как обозначение предметов и как средство общения. И поскольку язык есть сложное и противоречивое явление, постольку отдельные стороны его можно постичь, если применить методику антиномий, частного и общего. Основные противоречия, с которыми встречается исследователь языка, - это противоречия субъективного и объективного, языка и мышления, деятельности и дела, общего (коллективного) и особенного (индивидуального).[…] Гумбольдт считал, что языкознание должно иметь свою философскую базу – философию языка, построенную на прочном фундаменте анализа различных языков. Основными принципами философии языка, по мнению Гумбольдта, являются признание языка и его формы как деятельности и национального сознания народа. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.25).
The psychological orientation in linguistics arose as a reaction to the study of the representatives of naturalistic and logical orientations. Its origin is found in Humboldt's conception, which emphasized the active and semantic character of the discursive activity. (p.41, our translation).²⁴ 24 Original: Психологическое направление в языкознании возникло как реакция на учения представителей натуралистического и логического направлений. Его истоки мы находим в концепции Гумбольдта, который подчеркнул активный и семантический характер речевой деятельности. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.41).

BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].

5. Linguistic Schools – The so-called Linguistic Schools refer to a set of ideas and methods that prevailed in a certain era or group of linguists, at the mercy of the superiority of one over the others that then, seek to follow it […] From the appearance of linguistics as such, we can consider the following:

Comparativist […]
Neogrammarians […]
Genebra School – Founded by Saussure, responsible for an innovative movement that dates from the beginnings of this century. […] Saussure considers language as an individual creation, but limits it and links it to the need for the relationship of the individual with those around him. Originating from what are currently considered classical concepts. – language, speech, diachrony, synchrony (see p.42, 64). For him, the object of linguistic study is language and not speech. The unfinished work of the master admits criticisms made by Warburg with respect to the separation between the synchronic (descriptive) and the diachronic (historical). (Warburg thinks that the two are interdependent […] This school has a positivist perspective, just as the neogrammarian ones do, against which, in the end, he reacts. (p.45-46, our translation)
Paris School […]
Idealist School – Founded by Karl Vossler, opposes the positivism of Saussure. It is based on the aesthetic idealism of Croce. It does not consider language as a natural entity, capable of being studied with scientific criteria and methods, but as a human activity, aware of itself as the object of history. It is a return to the spiritualism of Bopp, Herder and Humboldt […]
Structuralist School – Strating from these precursors, there are three main lines, that prevail in modern North American linguistics:
1. Transformational Grammar – […]
2. Stratificational Grammar – […]
3. Tagmemics (p.47-49).²⁷ 27 Original: 5. Escolas lingüísticas – Chama-se escola lingüística a um conjunto de idéias e métodos que dominaram numa certa época ou num grupo de lingüistas, mercê da superioridade de um sobre outros que então, procuram segui-lo. […] Do aparecimento da lingüística como tal, podemos considerar as seguintes:a) Comparatista […] b) Neogramáticos […] c) Escola de Genebra – Fundada por Saussure, responsável por um movimento inovador que data dos princípios deste século. […] Saussure considera a linguagem como criação individual, mas limita-a e vincula-a à necessidade de relação do indivíduo com os que o rodeiam. Parte de conceitos hoje clássicos – língua, fala, diacronia, sincronia (ver p.42, 64). Para ele, o objeto da lingüística é a língua, não a fala. A obra inacabada do mestre admite críticas como as feitas por Wartburg a respeito da separação entre o sincrônico (descritivo) e o diacrônico (histórico). (Warburg acha que os dois interdependem.) […] Esta escola é de orientação positivista, como a dos neogramáticos, contra a qual, no fundo, reagia. (p.45-46) d) Escola de Paris […] e) Escola idealista – Fundada por Karl Vossler, opõe-se ao positivismo de Saussure. Baseia-se no idealismo estético de Croce. Não considera a língua como entidade natural, possível de ser estudada com critério e métodos científicos, mas como atividade humana, consciente de si e objeto de história. É um retorno ao espiritualismo de Bopp, Herder e Humboldt […] f) Escolas estruturalistas – Partindo desses precursores, há três correntes principais, que dominam a lingüística norte-americana moderna:I- Gramática transformacional – […] II- Gramática estratificacional – […] III- Tagmêmica. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.47-49).

KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.

The Works of F. Saussure (1857-1913) are found in the juncture between different linguistic perspectives and schools: it sustains ideas of psychological and sociological linguistics, of the neogrammaticism, its concepts being continued in the studies of structuralist schools, of the lingosemiotics and the linguistic system. (p.70)²⁸ 28 Original: Работы Ф. де Соссюра (1857-1913) находится на стыке разных лингвистических направлений и школ: он поддерживает идеи психологической и социологической лингвистики, неограмматизма, его концепция будет продолжена в учениях структуралистических школ, лингвосемиотики и системой лингвистики. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.70). . On creating a theory of language, Saussure operated not only in the realm of linguistic traditions, but also in the philosophical works of I. Kant. Count and E. Durkheim, from whose study he took the understanding of the social fact as representations of the collective unconscious, which obliges the individual to subordinate him or herself to the social. The main method of analysis for Saussure is the method of antonyms. He was very well-known by then: W. Humbolt and many linguists from the 19^th century used broadly the methods of the antonyms. (p.71).²⁹ 29 Original: Создавая теорию языка, де Соссюр опирался не только на лингвистическую традицию, но и на философские труды И. Канта, О. Конта и Э. Дюркгейма, из учения которого он взял понимание социального факта как представления коллективного сознания, принуждающего индивида подчиняться этому социальному. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.71). Основным методом анализа де Соссюр метод антиномий. Это тоже было уже известно: метод антиномий широко использовал В. Гумбольдт и многие лингвисты XIX в. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.71).
Next, in accordance with Humboldt,the contradictory nature of the discursive activity (langage), Saussure considered the antonymic language (langue) and speech (parole) as its main contradiction. (p.72) ³⁰ 30 Original: Исследуя, как и Гумбольдт, противоречивую природу речевой деятельности (langage), её основным противоречием де Соссюр считал антиномию языка (langue) и речи (parole). (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.72).

BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. [Introduction to Linguistic Studies] 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].

Linguistics is a science that seeks to determine, by its own methods, the structure and the function of human language. Since a human language, that is, the capacity that human beings have to communicate through sounds articulated in themselves, is an abstraction in itself, linguistics seeks the concretization of this language, i.e., the languages.
Objective – The field of action of linguistics is language, understood as the system of sonorous elements of which human beings use to communicate their feelings, desires and thoughts. It is also through language that members of a social group interact among themselves. To really grasp what it actually is, let's take into consideration its unique features. (p.36, our translation, emphasis added).³⁷ 37 Original: A linguística é uma ciência que procura determinar, com métodos próprios, a estrutura ea função da linguagem humana. Como a linguagem humana, isto é,a capacidade que tem o homem de comunicar-sepor meio de sons articulados em si, é uma abstração, a lingüística procura a concretização desta linguagem, ou seja, as línguas. Objetivo – O campo de ação da lingüística é a linguagem, entendendo-se por este termoo sistema de elementos sonoros de que os homens se servem para comunicar seus sentimentos, volições e pensamentos. É também pela linguagem que os membros de um grupo social atuam entre si. Para bem alcançarmos o que realmente ela seja, atentemos para suas características particulares (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.36).

KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral – General Linguistics]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.

The heavily antonymic conception of the “speech-language” phenomenon has two essential defects: a) in this conception, the complex nature of language as a fundamental means of communication is represented in a simplifed manner; as will be shown ahead, language is a unit composed by the system and by the structure of the language, by the linguistic norm and by the discursive activity; b) the conceptionof “speech-language” is not infrequently interpreted as opposition between the research object (speech-text) and the research subject (metalanguage, research model). (p.120, our translation, emphasis added).³⁸ 38 Original: Строго антиномическая концепция «язык – речь» имеет два существенных недостатка: а) в этой концепции сложная природа языка как основного средства общения представлена упрощенно; как будет показано ниже (см. с. 121-122), язык представляет единство системы и структуры языка, языковой нормы и речевой деятельности; б) концепция «язык – речь» нередко истолковывается как противопоставление объекта (речи-текста) субъекту исследования (метаязыку, исследовательской модели). (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.120).
Language is a structured (system), language is norms, language is the discursive activity of the speakers; in his time L.V. Chierba³⁹ 39 Liev Vladímirovitch Chierba (1880-1944) Russina linguist who studied a poorly known slavic dialect of the time (восточнолужицк) located in German territory. Chierba gave much importance to the spoken language and was one of the first to defend that living language existed primarily in the form of dialogue. The trichotomy, system/norm/discursive activity was exposed by Chierba in the work “On the triadic aspect of linguistic phenomena and the experiment in linguistics” (1931). wrote convincingly about this triadic object of linguistics. (p. 121)⁴⁰ 40 Original: Язык – структура (система), язык – норма, язык –речевая деятельность говорящих – таков троякий предмет языкознания, о чём убедительно писал в свое время Л. В. Щерба. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.121).
Thus, the object of linguistics is the human language as a concrete-historical norm. (p.123).⁴¹ 41 Original: Итак, предметом языкознания является человеческий язык как конкретно-историческая норма. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.123).

BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].

Descriptive linguistics seeks to comprehend language as form, with the understanding of this last term as the set of elements that serves a particular social group for intercommunication and expression. Describing a language is accounting for its formal completeness, demonstrating everything that is unique and unmistakable to it. The first concern in this sense has to be to rigorously show what is permanent in the language and, therefore, not shared with others. (p.50, our translation)⁵² 52 Original: A linguística descritiva procura compreender uma língua como forma, entendendo-se por este último termo aquele conjunto de elementos de que se serve um determinado grupo social para a intercomunicação e expressão. Descrever uma língua é dar conta de sua plenitude formal, demonstrando tudo o que lhe é peculiar e inconfundível. O primeiro cuidado neste sentido há de ser o de precisar rigorosamente aquilo que é permanente na língua e, portanto, não comum com outras. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.50).
The good description determines with assurance how communication is done, that is, determines all the significant units (originating from the first articulation_ and distinctive (originating from the second articulation). A descriptive study covers […] external and internal features (p.51, our translation)⁵³ 53 Original: A boa descrição determina com segurança como se faz a comunicação, isto é, determina todas as unidades significativas (provenientes da primeira articulação) e distintivas (provenientes da segunda articulação). Um estudo descritivo abrange […] caracteres externos e internos (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.51).
The external features are in function of the social groups, which determine the extension of the domain of the language, the nature of its functions of relations, its functioning in external varieties. (p.51, our translation)⁵⁴ 54 Original: Os caracteres externos estão em função dos grupos sociais, que determinam a extensão do domínio da língua, a natureza de suas funções de relação, seu funcionamento em variedades externas. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.51).
The description of the internal elements of a language can be carried out on four levels: phonological, grammatical, lexical and stylistic. (p.53, our translation)⁵⁵ 55 Original: A descrição dos elementos internos de uma língua pode ser feita em quatro planos: fonológico, gramatical, léxico e estilístico. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.53).

KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [-General Linguistics - Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.

Descriptive Method: it is the oldest and at the same time the most modern method of linguistics. The ancient grammars of Chinese, Indian and Greek were predominately descriptive […]
What is refered to as descriptive method is a system of descriptive procedures, applied for the characterization of phenomena of the language in one given stage of its development; this is a synchronic analysis. (p.219, our translation, emphasis added).⁵⁶ 56 Original: Описательный метод – самый старый и в то же время современный метод лигвистики. Древнейшие китайские, индийские и греческие грамматики были по преимуществу описательными […] Описательном методом называется система исследовательских приёмов, применяемых для характеристики явлений языка на данном этапе его развития; это синхронного анализа. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.219).
In the first stage of the descriptive analysis words and phrases are extracted from the text, that is, denominative and communicative units of the language. (p.219, our translation).⁵⁷ 57 Original: На первом этапе описатеьного анализя из текста выделяются слова и предложения, т. е. номинативные и коммуникативные единицы языка. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.219).
The second stage in the descriptive analysis consists in the division of what was extracted from the text in units, that is, the identification of structural units […] segmented as morpheme and word, syntagm and parts of the phrase.
The third stage of descriptive analysis is linked with the interpretation of the nominative-comunicative and structural units extracted.
The structural interpretation (not structuralist!) is carried out above all with the help of an application of categorical and discrete analysis. (p.220, our translation).⁵⁸ 58 Original: Второй этап описательного анализа состоит в членении выделеных из текста единиц, т. е. нахождении структурных единиц […] вычленяются морфема и словоформа, словосочетание и член предложения. Третий этап описательного анализа связан с интерпретацией выделеных номинативно-коммуникативных и структурных единиц. Структурная (не структуралическая!) интепретация осуществляется чаще всего при помощи методик категориального и дискретного анализа. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.220).
The structuralists (and not only them, since similar opinions existed before them) are mistaken, when these units of linguistic analysis and of relations among them reveal the immanent essence of the language. This constitutes, undoubtedly, the rise of neopositivism, which can only be overcome by assuming the principles of dialectical materialism. (p.222, our translation, emphasis added).⁵⁹ 59 Original: Структуралисты (и не только они, так как подобные взгляды существовали и ранее) ошибаются тогда, когда эти единицы лигвистического анализа и отношения между ними объявляют иманентной сущностью языка. Это, несомнено, проявление неопозитивизма, преодолеть которе можно только с принципиальной позиции диалектического материализма. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.222).

BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].

Historical-comparative Method – The comparative method, developed from the 19th century on, provides the conditions for the teachings inferred from the scientific comparison. […] The linguists that contributed greatly to the success of the comparative researches (Bopp, for example) had different aims from those pursued by the modern comparativists, since, influenced by the ideas of the 18^th century, they seeked to arrive at the beginning of things and account for the genesis of the linguistic forms in their oldest state, according to the most archaic data possible provided by the set of languages considered. (p.144-145, our translation).⁶¹ 61 Original: Método histórico-comparativo – O método comparativo, elaborado a partir do século XIX, fornece as condições para os ensinamentos depreendidos da comparação científica. […] Os lingüistas que muito contribuíram para o sucesso das pesquisas comparativas (Bopp, por ex.) tinham finalidades diferentes dos comparatistas modernos, pois, levados pelas idéias do século XVIII, procuravam chegar ao início das coisas e dar conta, de acordo com os dados mais arcaicos possíveis, fornecidos pelo conjunto de línguas consideradas, da gênese das formas lingüísticas em seu estado mais antigo. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.144-145).
The historical-comparative method allows for the inductive restauration of the original linguistic form from which the various current forms were derived, making possible the fairly faithful reconstruction of any language that has disappeared without a documental trace. It also enables the reconstruction of spoken forms of a language hidden behind the ancient documents, whether literary, epigraphic or critical texts. (p.147, our translation).⁶² 62 Original: O método histórico-comparativo permite a restauração indutiva da forma lingüística original de que vieram as diferentes formas atuais, possibilitando a reconstrução mais ou menos fiel de uma língua que desapareceu sem deixar documentos. Possibilita a reconstrução de formas faladas de uma língua oculta por trás de documentos antigos, seja textos literários, epigráficos ou críticos. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.147).
Despite its advantages, this method is subject to several limitations: 1) Conclusions provide probability and not certainty of the existence of a particular linguistic phenomenon. […] 2) It does not permit the complete reconstruction of a language because there are phenomena that escape comparison. […] 3) As languages vary in time with great inequality, we have never found a perfect unified state […] 4) The reconstruction of the vocabulary, which provides valuable subsidies for phonetic, morphological and even syntactic reconstruction, runs the risk of escaping, at times, comparison because many etymologies depend on the history elaborated with the help of testimonies.
The historical-comparative method used with criterion and rigor, with approximations subject to strict rules, will be efficient when used with supplementary resources, such as texts, epigraphic and grammatical documents. (p. 148)⁶³ 63 Original: Apesar de suas vantagens, este método está sujeito a várias limitações: 1°) As conclusões a que nos leva dão probabilidade e não certeza da existência de um determinado fenômeno lingüístico. […] 2°) Não permite a reconstrução completa de uma língua porque há fenômenos que escapam à comparação. […] 3°) Como as línguas variam no tempo com rapidez desigual, nunca encontramos um estado unitário perfeito […] 4°) A reconstrução do vocabulário, que fornece subsídios valiosos para a reconstrução fonética, morfológica e até sintática, corre o perigo de escapar, às vezes, à comparação, porque muitas etimologias dependem da história feita com a ajuda de testemunhas. O método histórico-comparativo usado com critério e rigor, com aproximações sujeitas a regras estritas, será eficiente quando usado com recursos suplementares, como textos, documentos epigráficos e gramaticais. (BORBA, 1970 [1967], p.148).

KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.

The comparison of language is based on two types of comparative methods: historical-comparative and constrastive-comparative. […] The historical-comparative method aims not only to compare languages and their phenomena, but also the discovery of the development of related languages; the objective of the comparative-constrastive method is to characterize phenomena comparable in two or more languages establishing what is common to each, and different in analogous phenomena, abstracting it from history and its origin. (p. 253)⁶⁴ 64 Original: На сравнении языков основаны два вида сравнительного метода – сравнительно-исторический и сравнительно-споставительный. […] Сравнительно-исторический метод имеет целью на только сравнение языков и их явлений, но и обнаружение развития родственных языков; цель сравнетельно-сопоставительного метода – охаректеризовать сопоставлаемые явления двух или нескольких языков,установить общее и различное в аналогичных явлениях, отвлекаясь от истории и их происхождения. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.253).
Historical-comparative linguistics studies related languages, their classification, history and expansion. (p.254, our translation)⁶⁵ 65 Original: Сравнительно-исторический метод основывается на понятии генетической общности и наличии семей и групп родственных языков. (KODUKHOV, 1974, p.254).

Brazilian Publishing Market	Russian Publishing Market
Introductory Textbooks for the disciplines of linguistics (Phonology, Syntax, etc.)	Large quantity of textbooks of general introduction to linguistics.
Texts by various authors	Authorial texts
*BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos.* [Introduction to Linguistic Studies] 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1970 [1967]**BORBA, F. da S. Introdução aos estudos linguísticos. 2.ed. São Paulo: Cia. Nacional, 1970 [1967].	*KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie* [Linguística Geral – General Linguistics]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974**KODUKHOV, V. I. Óbchee iazikoznánie [Linguística Geral]. Moscou: Víchaia Chkola, 1974.
Personal style – the questioning of scientific objectivity	Impersonal style – scientific style
Undergraduates in Language and Literature – lack of knowledge and skills	Undergraduates in Language and Literature – in the process of improving
Linguistics is a Science developed abroad.	Russian and Soviet linguists play a part in the development of linguistics Soviet linguistics – autonomous and in connection with world linguistics
Saussrean and Chomskian linguistics	Philosophy of the German language (Humboldt)
Controversial dialogue with the “immediate practical application”	Controversial dialogue between idealism and materialism
Humboldt – outdated stage	Humboldt – founder of general linguistics
Saussure – positivist and innovative	Saussure – a link in the domain of linguistics
The object of study in linguistics: language	The object of study in linguistics: system, linguistic norm, discursive activity
Criticism of the historical-comparative method	Criticism of the descriptive method

Brasil

Brasil

LINGUISTICS IN BRAZILIAN AND SOVIET TEXTBOOKS

ABSTRACT: