Intrinsic |
Irregular post-transcriptional modifications (PTM) in canonical histones |
FSH and testosterone synergy |
Xing et al. (2003)Xing W, Krishnamurthy H, Sairam MR. Role of folltropin receptor signaling in nuclear protein transitions and chromatin condensation during spermatogenesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2003;312(3):697-701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.10.177. PMid:14680821. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.10...
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H3T |
Yuen et al. (2014)Yuen BTK, Bush KM, Barrilleaux BL, Cotterman R, Knoepfler PS. Histone H3.3 regulates dynamic chromatin states during spermatogenesis. Development. 2014;141(18):3483-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.106450. PMid:25142466. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.106450...
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TH2B |
Ausio et al. (2016)Ausio J, Zhang Y, Ishibashi T. Histone variants and posttranslational modifications in spermatogenesis and infertility. In: García-Giménez JL, editor. Epigenetic biomarkers and diagnostics. London: Elsevier; 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801899-6.00024-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-8018...
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Alterations in the gene sequence of PRM1 and PRM2 |
VLRs of altered length |
Hammoud et al. (2007)Hammoud S, Emery BR, Aoki VW, Carrell DT. Identification of genetic variation in the 5′ and 3′ non-coding regions of the protamine genes in patients with protamine deregulation. Arch Androl. 2007;53(5):267-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01485010701569890. PMid:18309899. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01485010701569...
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SNPs |
Ravel et al. (2007)Ravel C, Chantot-Bastaraud S, El Houate B, Berthaut I, Verstraete L, De Larouziere V, Lourenço D, Dumaine A, Antoine JM, Mandelbaum J, Siffroi JP, McElreavey K. Mutations in the protamine 1 gene associated with male infertility. Mol Hum Reprod. 2007;13(7):461-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molehr/gam031. PMid:17494104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molehr/gam031...
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Alterations in protamination regulatory pathways |
Via CREM |
Blendy et al. (1996)Blendy JA, Kaestner KH, Weinbauer GF, Nieschlag E, Schütz G. Severe impairment of spermatogenesis in mice lacking the CREM gene. Nature. 1996;380(6570):162-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/380162a0. PMid:8600391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/380162a0...
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Via MSY2 |
Yu et al. (2002)Yu J, Hecht NB, Schultz RM. RNA-binding properties and translation repression in vitro by germ cell-specific MSY2 protein. Biol Reprod. 2002;67(4):1093-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod67.4.1093. PMid:12297523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod67.4...
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Via PRBP |
Lee et al. (1996)Lee K, Fajardo MA, Braun RE. A testis cytoplasmic RNA-binding protein that has the properties of a translational repressor. Mol Cell Biol. 1996;16(6):3023-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/MCB.16.6.3023. PMid:8649414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/MCB.16.6.3023...
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Extrinsic |
Oxidative Stress |
High temperature |
Hamilton et al. (2018)Hamilton TRDS, Siqueira AFP, Castro LS, Mendes CM, Delgado JDC, Assis PM, Mesquita LP, Maiorka PC, Nichi M, Goissis MD, Visintin JA, Assumpção MEODA. Effect of heat stress on sperm DNA: protamine assessment in ram spermatozoa and testicle. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2018;2018:5413056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/5413056. PMid:29765499. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/5413056...
; Rahman et al. (2011)Rahman MB, Vandaele L, Rijsselaere T, Maes D, Hoogewijs M, Frijters A, Noordman J, Granados A, Dernelle E, Shamsuddin M, Parrish JJ, Van Soom A. Scrotal insulation and its relationship to abnormal morphology, chromatin protamination and nuclear shape of spermatozoa in Holstein-Friesian and Belgian Blue bulls. Theriogenology. 2011;76(7):1246-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2011.05.031. PMid:21777969. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenolo...
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Exposure to oxidizing agents |
Wu et al. (2020)Wu PY, Scarlata E, O’Flaherty C. Long-term adverse effects of oxidative stress on rat epididymis and spermatozoa. Antioxidants. 2020;9(2):170. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020170. PMid:32093059. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020170...
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Exposure to chemotherapeutic agents |
Codrington et al. (2007)Codrington AM, Hales BF, Robaire B. Exposure of male rats to cyclophosphamide alters the chromatin structure and basic proteome in spermatozoa. Hum Reprod. 2007;22(5):1431-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dem002. PMid:17303633. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dem002...
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Dietary vitamin effect |
Gao et al. (2021)Gao Y, Jian L, Lu W, Xue Y, Machaty Z, Luo H. Vitamin E can promote spermatogenesis by regulating the expression of proteins associated with the plasma membranes and protamine biosynthesis. Gene. 2021;773:145364. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2020.145364. PMid:33359122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2020.14...
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