Coopetition |
A strategic and dynamic process blending competition and cooperation, significantly impacting value creation and governance in ecosystems. |
Tensions at multiple levels (interorganizational, intra-organizational, individual) affecting knowledge sharing, resource distribution, and psychological challenges; a symbiotic relationship where entities work toward common goals, balanced with private motivations and opportunistic behavior, often exhibiting ambivalence and inherent tensions. |
Czakon et al. (2020Czakon, W., Srivastava, M., Leroy, F., & Gnyawali, D. (2020). Coopetition strategies: Critical issues and research directions. Long Range Planning, 53(1). http://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2019.101948 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2019.101948...
); Kilduff et al. (2010Kilduff, G. J., Elfenbein, H. A., & Staw, B. M. (2010). The psychology of rivalry: A relationally dependent analysis of competition. Academy of Management Journal, 53(5), 943-969. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2010.54533171 https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2010.5453317...
); Stacey (1996Stacey, R. (1996). Complexity and creativity in organizations. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.); Tidström (2014Tidström, A. (2014). Managing tensions in coopetition. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(2), 261-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2013.12.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2013...
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Collaboration |
A cross-fertilizing interaction implying a mutualistic relationship where parties work symbiotically toward common goals. |
Mutual trust and consistent communication; sharing knowledge and aligning different goals; coordination toward a common goal; tensions like flexibility vs. rigidity, autonomy vs. responsibility. |
Blomqvist & Levy (2006Blomqvist, K., & Levy, J. (2006). Collaboration capability-a focal concept in knowledge creation and collaborative innovation in networks. International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy, 2(1), 31-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2016.05.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2016...
); Hoffmann et al. (2018Hoffmann, W., Lavie, D., Reuer, J., & Shipilov, Al. (2018). The interplay of competition and co-operation. Strategic Management Journal, 39(12), 3033-3052. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2965 https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2965...
); Camarinha-Matos & Afsarmanesh (2018Camarinha-Matos, L. M., & Afsarmanesh, H. (2018). Roots of collaboration: nature-inspired solutions for collaborative networks. IEEE Access, 6, 30829-30843. https://10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2845119 https://10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2845119...
); Russell & Smorodinskaya (2018Russell, M. G., & Smorodinskaya, N. V. (2018). Leveraging complexity for ecosystemic innovation. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 136, 114-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2017.11.024 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2017....
); Stacey (1996Stacey, R. (1996). Complexity and creativity in organizations. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.) |
Competition |
A paradigm where one entity’s gain is another’s loss, characterized by self-interest and the pursuit of dominance. |
The pursuit of distinct market domains determining the strategic positioning among ecosystem participants; articulating choices guided by defense or protection; achieving or maintaining dominance; acquiring resources and constraining opponents; evolutionary dynamics between individual self-interest and altruism. |
Austen (2018Austen, A. (2018). In search of network sustainability: A multilevel perspective on the paradox of co-operation and competition in networks. Sustainability, 10(7), 2466. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072466 https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072466...
); Deutsch (1949Deutsch, M. (1949). A theory of co-operation and competition. Human relations, 2(2), 129-152. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872674900200204 https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726749002002...
); Ferrier et al. (1999Ferrier, W. J., Smith, K. G., & Grimm, C. M. (1999). The role of competitive action in market share erosion and industry dethronement: A study of industry leaders and challengers. Academy of Management Journal, 42(4), 372-388. https://doi.org/10.5465/257009 https://doi.org/10.5465/257009...
); Garcia et al. (2013Garcia, S. M., Tor, A., & Schiff, T. M. (2013). The psychology of competition: A social comparison perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6), 634-650. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613504114 https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613504114...
); Kilduff (2019Kilduff, G. J. (2019). Interfirm relational rivalry: Implications for competitive strategy. Academy of Management Review, 44(4), 775-799. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2017.0257 https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2017.0257...
); Scherer & Ross (1990Scherer, F. M., & Ross, D. (1990). Industrial market structure and economic performance. Houghton Mifflin.); Wilson (1997Wilson, D. S. (1997). Altruism and organism: Disentangling the themes of multilevel selection theory. The American Naturalist, 150(S1), s122-S134. http://doi.org/10.1086/286053 http://doi.org/10.1086/286053...
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Value Creation |
Benefits generated from interactions among ecosystem participants, influenced by both collective interests and private motivations. |
Co-dependence in value arising from interactions; multilevel paradoxes among participants nurtured by benefits through interdependent and complex interactions among ecosystem participants. |
Adner & Kapoor (2010Adner, R., & Kapoor, R. (2010). Value creation in innovation ecosystems: How the structure of technological interdependence affects firm performance in new technology generations. Strategic Management Journal, 31(3), 306-333. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.821 https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.821...
); Jarzabkowski & Bednarek (2018Jarzabkowski, P., & Bednarek, R. (2018). Toward a social practice theory of relational competing. Strategic Management Journal, 39(3), 794-829. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2724 https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2724...
); Keller et al. (2017Keller, J., Loewenstein, J., & Yan, J. (2017). Culture, conditions and paradoxical frames. Organization Studies, 38(3-4), 539-560. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840616685590 https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840616685590...
); Osterwalder et al. (2005Osterwalder, A., Pigneur, Y., & Tucci, C. L. (2005). Clarifying business models: Origins, present, and future of the concept. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 16(1), 1. http://doi.org/10.17705/1CAIS.01601 http://doi.org/10.17705/1CAIS.01601...
); Pushpananthan & Elmquist (2022Pushpananthan, G., & Elmquist, M. (2022). Joining forces to create value: The emergence of an innovation ecosystem. Technovation, 115, 102453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2021.102453 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2...
); Thomas & Autio (2019Thomas, L., & Autio, E. (2019). Innovation ecosystems. Innovation Ecosystems. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3476925 http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3476925...
); Zahra & Nambisan (2012Zahra, S. A., & Nambisan, S. (2012). Entrepreneurship and strategic thinking in business ecosystems. Business Horizons, 55(3), 219-229. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2011.12.004 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2011.12....
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