(1)
Apinajé (Goyaz) (Oliveira, 2005, p. 251)
Pa
kot
paj
ix-pi-kunok
kêt=nẽ.
1.NOM
IRR
1.NOM.IRR
1-ANTIC.NF-LOSE.NF
NEG
‘I won’t get lost.’
(2)
Xavánte (Central) (Estevam, 2011, p. 271)
Wa-tsi-wadza-ri
mono
õ
di
dza.
1.PL.ABS-MI-MIX-NF
IT
NEG
EX
PROSP
‘We are not going to mingle.’
Table 1
Standard negators in the Jê languages.
(3)
Icatu Kaingáng (D’Angelis, 2008, p. 44, see also M. S. Silva, 2011, p. 142)
Ti
wɐ̃
lε
ʋe
tõ
nĩ.
3.SG.M
NOM
SUN
SEE
NEG
ASP
‘He didn’t see the sun.’
(4)
Panará (Bardagil-Mas, 2018, p. 165)
Mãra
hẽ
ti=Ø=pĩri
nãnkjo
inkjoo,
ti=Ø=pĩri
kjyti.
3SG
ERG
3SG.ERG=3SG.ABS=KILL
peccary
NEG
3SG.ERG=3SG.ABS=KILL
tapir
‘He didn’t kill a peccary, he killed a tapir.’
(2)
Xavánte (Estevam, 2011, p. 271)
Wa-tsi-wadza-ri
mono
õ
di
dza.
1.PL.ABS-MI-MIX-NF
IT
NEG
EX
PROSP
‘We are not going to mingle.’
(5)
Xavánte (Estevam, 2011, p. 274)
Upi
tõ!
3.ABS.TOUCH
PROH
‘Don’t touch him.’
(6)
Xerénte (Sousa Filho, 2007, p. 285)
Ta-hã
mãku
Ø-tê
wrĩ
kõdi.
3.SG.NOM-EMPH
DUCK
3-ERG
KILL.SG.NF
NEG
‘He doesn’t kill a duck.’
(7)
Xerénte (Sousa Filho, 2007, pp. 216, 215, 219)
(a)
Kâ-mba
kuba-di.
river-INES
canoe-PRED
‘There is a canoe in the river.’
(b)
Da-sa
srurê-di.
GEN-food
little-PRED
‘There is little food.’
(c)
Wa
ĩ-pkẽ-psê-di.
1.SG.NOM
1.SG-heart-good-PRED
‘I am good.’
(8)
Xerénte (Sousa Filho, 2007, p. 164)
Wa
waihku-di.
1SG.NOM
know-PTCP
‘I have knowledge.’
(9)
Xerénte (Sousa Filho, 2007, p. 226)
Supra-di
re
sika-krê
ĩ-kamõ.
Supra-?
PST.dist
hen-egg
1.SG-give
‘Supra gave me eggs.’
(10)
Xavánte (McLeod & Mitchell, 2003, pp. 69-70)
(a)
Pi’õ
ti.
(b)
Pi’õ
õ
di.
women
EX
women
NEG
EX
‘There are women.’
‘There are no women.’
(11)
Xavánte (Estevam, 2011, p. 222)
Ĩĩ-wa’a
di.
1.SG.ABS-bore.NF
IMPERS
‘It bores me.’
(12)
Xavánte (Estevam, 2011, p. 441)
Duréihã
da-dzépu’u
õ
di
...
in.the.old.days
3.GEN-be.sick.NF
NEG
EX
‘In the old days there was no disease ...’
(13)
Pseudo-English
(a)
There are no black swans.
(b)
There is no chasing by the hunter of the bear.
‘The hunter is not chasing the bear.’
(c)
Black swans are non-existent.
(d)
The hunter [there is not] chasing the bear.
(17)
Xavánte (Quintino, 2020)
Õhã
ĩ-tsõtõ
õ.
3.SG
3.ABS-sleep.NF
NEG
‘He does not sleep.’
(18)
Xavánte (Estevam, 2011, p. 444)
Wa-tsihutu
õ
ré
hã,
robduri
ma
ãwitsi
dzadzahöi
hã.
1.PL.ABS-reach.NF
NEG
SUB
EMPH
truck
PRF
3.ABS.bring
clothes
EMPH
‘Before we arrived, the truck had brought clothes.’
(19)
Xavánte (Beauchamp et al., 2017; Estevam, 2011, p. 305)
marĩ-dai-’õ
re
thing-use-PRIV
DIM
‘Useless things.’
(20)
(a)
I broke the vase.
↔
The vase broke.
(b)
The meadow was without cows.
↔
There were no cows.
(21)
Xavánte (Estevam, 2011, p. 178)
Ĩĩ-ma
’rubu
di.
1.SG-DAT
make.thirsty
IMPERS
‘I am thirsty.’ (lit. ‘it makes thirsty to me’, ‘there is making thirsty to me’)
(22)
Xavánte (Estevam, 2011, p. 104)
Te
dza
duré
rob-dzépata
dza’ra
ö
ãna.
3
PROSP
also
ANTIP-suffer
PL
water
PRIV
‘They will suffer more without water.’
(23)
Xavánte (Estevam, 2011, p. 463)
Dati’ö,
e
aa-nhihudu
aa-te
wamri
ãna?
mother.VOC
INT
2.HON-grandson
2.HON.ERG-AUX
3.ABS.name
PRIV
‘Mother, you are not going to give a name to your grandson?’(lit. ‘Mother, without your giving a name to your grandson?’)
(24)
Mother, you are going to be present at the ceremony without giving a name to our grandson?
(25)
Chilean Spanish (Gras & Sansiñena, 2017, p. 22)
Que
eris
fe-a
y
tont-a!
that
be.PRS.2SG
ugly-F.SG
and
silly-F.SG
‘You are so ugly and silly!’ (lit. ‘That you are ugly and silly!’)
(26)
English
If only he had told me.
‘I wish that he had told me.’
(27)
Xerénte (Sousa Filho, 2007, p. 189)
Da-sa-ze
nĩpkra-hi
knã
mãt
kmãsi.
GEN-eat.INTR-NMLZ
hand-bone
PRIV
3.PST.PFV.r
eat.PL
‘He ate without a fork.’
(28)
Xerénte (Miranda, 2015, p. 267)
kwa=tõ
tooth-PRIV
‘Toothless.’
(29)
Apinajé (Oliveira, 2005, p. 251)
Na
pa
a-to
ix-pi-mti-r
kêt=nẽ.
R
1.NOM
2-INSTR
1-ANTIC.NF-dream-NF
NEG=fct
‘I didn’t dream about you.’
(30)
Apinajé (Oliveira, 2005, p. 156)
Na
pa
ix-punuj
rũnh
nẽ.
R
1.NOM
1-ugly
INTS
FCT
‘I am very ugly.’
(31)
Kajkwakhrattxi (Camargo, 2015, p. 80)
(a)
I-khrã
j-akot-re.
1.SG-head
REL-round-DIM
‘My head is very round.’
(b)
Nayara
ra
kĩj
kêrê-re
Nayara
DEF
joyful
NEG-DIM
‘Nayara is not joyful.’
(32)
Apinajé (Oliveira, 2005, p. 250)
Kormã
gô
kagro
hkêt.
yet
water
hot
NEG
‘There is no hot water yet.’
(33)
Mẽbêngôkre (Salanova, 2007, p. 58)
Tep
kêt.
fish
NEG
‘There is no fish.’
(34)
Apinajé (Oliveira, 2005, p. 250)
Pixô=rã
ràràr-e
na
jari
hamrakati.
plant=flower
yellow-dim
R
here
NEG.EX
‘There are no yellow flowers around here.’
(35)
Mẽbêngôkre (Beauchamp et al., 2017)
Ø-no
kêt
3-eye
NEG
‘Blind.’
(36)
Krahô (Miranda, 2015, p. 260)
i-pẽr=kêt
3-speech=neg
‘Dumb.’
(37)
M?bêngôkre (Gildea & Castro Alves, 2020, p. 94)
Ga
a-je
Ø-ma-ri
kêt.
2.NOM
2-ERG
3.ABS-know-NF
NEG
‘You don’t know it.’
(38)
Kĩsêdjê (Gildea & Castro Alves, 2010, pp. 186, 2020, p. 97)
Ro-txi
ra
*...ERG
mĩ-txi
pĩ-rĩ
khêrê.
anaconda-AUG
DEF
alligator-AUG
kill.SG-NF
neg
‘The anaconda didn’t kill the alligator.’
(39)
as for the topic/focus constituent α, a state of affairs in which α is involved does not exist
↓
α is without a state of affairs in which α is involved
(40)
topic/focus
[non-finite form with absolutive alignment]
existential NEGator
↓
subject
[non-finite form with absolutive alignment]
privative NEGator
(42)
Kĩsêdjê (Gildea & Castro Alves, 2020, p. 98)
*... NOM
kô-re
i-kakhê-n
khêrê.
3-ERG
1SG.ABS-scratch-NF
NEG
‘He didn’t scratch me.’
(6)
Xerénte (Sousa Filho, 2007, p. 285)
Tahã
mãku
Ø-tê
w-rĩ
kõdi.
3.SG.NOM
duck
3-ERG
kill.SG-NF
NEG
‘He doesn’t kill a duck.’
(43)
Wobé (Marchese, 1986, p. 192; Kuteva et al., 2019, p. 413)
(a)
ɔ
bɔ́
blè-à.
3.SG
stop
sing-NF
‘He stopped singing.’
(b)
ε
~
bɔ
à
blāā.
2
NEG
1.PL
hit.NF
‘Don’t hit us!’
(44)
Laklãnõ (Gakran, 2015, pp. 206, 204)
(a)
Katxol
te
vũ
ẽnh
PLa-g
tũ
tẽ.
dog
SPEC
SBJ
1
bite-NF10
NEG
iPFV
‘The dog didn’t bite me.’
(b)
Kujel
tũ
nũ
jã.
hunger
PRIV
1.NOM
AUX.1
‘I am without hunger.’
(45)
Laklãnõ (Gakran, 2015, p. 207)
Ló
kala
tũ-g.
IMP
enter
NEG-caus
‘Do not come in.’
(46)
Icatu Kaingáng (M. S. Silva, 2011, p. 65)
Goio
kronia
tõ.
WATER
drink
NEG
‘Don’t drink water.’
(47)
Panará (Dourado, 2001, pp. 117, 120)
(a)
Luzia
jy=too
pjo
mũũ
tã.
Luzia
R.INTR=go
NEG
Brasília
ALL
‘Luzia didn’t travel to Brasília.’
(b)
Sõse
jy=pjoo.
line
R.INTR=finish
‘The line ended.’
(48)
Panará (Dourado, 2001, p. 120)
Mãra
hẽ
ti=py=so=kre
jy=pjoo.
3.SG.M
ERG
3.SG.ERG=DIR=thing=PLant
R.INTR=NEG
‘He will not PLant again.’
(51)
Panará (Dourado, 2001, p. 117)
Inkjoo
pakwa
kjôkjô.
NEG.EX
banana
ripe
‘There is no ripe banana.’
(52)
Panará (Dourado, 2001, p. 119)
ka
kukrê
sã.
IRR
eat
NEG
‘Don’t eat!’
(53)
Krahô (Miranda, 2015, p. 249)
Me
h-ũmre
te
cukryt
cura-n
nare.
PL
3-M
ERG
tapir
kill.SG-NF
NEG
‘Men didn’t kill the tapir.’
(54)
Mẽbêngôkre (Castro Alves, 2010, p. 469)
Ga
arỳm
a-kõ-m
o
Ø-inõ-re.
2.NOM
already
2-drink-NF
INSTR
3-end-DIM
‘You have already finished drinking.’
(55)
Krahô (Miranda, 2015, p. 255)
Cô
kam
ro-hti
jamrẽare.
water
LOC
anaconda-INTS
NEG.ex
‘There are no anacondas in the river.’
(56)
Krahô (Miranda, 2015, pp. 260, 254)
(a)
Ø-wa=nõ
3-tooth=NEG
‘Toothless.’
(b)
Ita
py-r
nõ.
DEM
take.SG-NF
NEG
‘Don’t take this.’
(57)
Canela (Gildea & Castro Alves, 2010, p. 178)
Wa
ha
i-pyr
na.
1.NOM
IRR
3.ABS-grab.NF
NEG
‘I will not grab it.’
(58)
Panará (Dourado, 2001, pp. 118, 122)
(a)
Mõsy
jy=kjõti
rõ.
maize.ABS
R.INTR=sprout
NEG
‘The maize didn’t sprout.’
(b)
Mãra
hẽ
ti=py-ri
inkô
saswâ-ri
nõ
amã.
3SG.M
ERG
3.SG.ERG=take-PFV
water
pour-PFV13
NEG
INES
‘She carried water without spilling.’
(59)
Icatu Kaingáng (M. S. Silva, 2011, pp. 162, 152)
(a)
Ti-wã
rere
wé
tõ.
3SG.M-NOM
sun
see
NEG
‘He didn’t see the sun.’
(b)
Kotit
thu
koia
lengró.
child
NEG
eat
beans
‘The child does not eat beans.’
(60)
Kaingáng (Gonçalves, 2007, p. 159)
Ti
ter
ja
nĩn
hãra
inh
pi
vé-g
mũ.
3
die
ASP
ASP
but
1
NEG
see-FIN
ASP
‘He died, but I didn’t see it.’
(61)
Canela (Castro Alves, 2004, p. 129)
Ahkrajre
nee
rop
cahy-r
prãm
nare.
boy
NEG
dog
hit-NF
want
NEG
‘The boy doesn’t want to hit the dog.’
(62)
Krahô (Miranda, 2015, p. 259)
Nee
Piikẽn
nee
Jõhi
jũm
te
me
h-ũ-j-ahê-r
neither
Piikẽn
nor
Jõhi
someone
ERG
PL
3-ANTIP.NF-TH-hunt-NF
pĩn
amji
j-axà-r
nare.
ABL
REFL
TH-insert.PL-NF
NEG
‘Neither Piikhẽn nor Jõhi, nobody returned from hunting.’
(63)
Panará (Dourado, 2001, pp. 120, 121)
(a)
Ra=tõ=pôô
pjo
môtô
amã.
3PL.ABS=EMPH=arrive
NEG
boat
INES
‘Nobody arrived by boat.’
(b)
Akâ
hẽ
ti=tõ=swâ-ri
rõ
tepi.
Akâ
ERG
3SG.ABS=EMPH=do-PFV
NEG
fish.ABS
‘Akâ didn’t catch any fish.’
(64)
Panará (Bardagil-Mas, forthc.)
Rê=tõ=Ø=py
kâjasâ.
1SG.ERG=EMPH=3SG.ABS=take
machete
‘I did take a machete.’