Figure 1
Percentage of live (a), dead (b), and plasmolyzed (c) cells observed for the photobiont of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 2
Percentage of live (a), dead (b), and plasmolyzed (c) cells observed for the photobionts of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of glyphosate herbicide for three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 3
Anatomical sections showing the tissue organization of thalli of the lichens, Parmotrema tinctorum (a-d), and Usnea barbata (e-h) submitted to different concentrations of the herbicide, glyphosate (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). C = cortex, UC = upper cortex, AL = algal layer, UL = upper layer (upper cortex + photobiont layer), M = medulla, LC = lower cortex, CC = central cylinder. In e and f, arrows indicate the presence of ascospores stored in asci.
Figure 4
Concentration of photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a (a) and total (b) and carotenoids (c) observed for the photobiont of lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 5
The concentrations of the photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll a (a), chlorophyll b (b), and total chlorophyll (c), chlorophyll a/b ratio (d), and carotenoids (e) were observed for the photobionts of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of glyphosate herbicide for three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 6
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: Specific light absorption flux per reaction center - ABS/RC (a), captured energy flux per reaction center at t = 0 - TR0/RC (b), and specific energy dissipation flux at the level of the chlorophylls of the antenna complex - DI0 /RC (c) were observed for the photobiont of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, subjected to different concentrations of the glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 7
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: Photosynthetic performance index - PiAbs (a), quantum yield of electron transport - PHIE0 (b), electron transport chain after the Quinone - PHI 0 (c), and maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry - PHIP0 (d) observed for the photobiont of lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, subjected to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 8
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: FV/FM - maximum quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry; ETR - apparent electron transport rate; ΦII - effective quantum yield of photochemical energy conversion in PSII; ΦNPQ - quantum yield of regulated energy dissipation, and ΦNO - quantum yield of unregulated energy dissipation, observed for the lichen photobiont, Parmotrema tinctorum, subjected to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1).
Figure 9
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: FV/FM - maximum quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry; ETR - apparent electron transport rate; ΦII - effective quantum yield of photochemical energy conversion in PSII; ΦNPQ - quantum yield of regulated energy dissipation, and ΦNO - quantum yield of unregulated energy dissipation, observed for the lichen photobiont, Usnea barbata, subjected to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1).
Figure 10
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: Specific light absorption flux per reaction center - ABS/RC (a), captured energy flux per reaction center at t = 0 - TR0 /RC (b), electron transport flux per reaction center - ET0 /RC (c), and specific energy dissipation flux at the level of the chlorophylls of the antenna complex - DI0 /RC (d) observed for the photobiont of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, subjected to the action of glyphosate herbicide over three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 11
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: Photosynthetic performance index - PiAbs (a), quantum yield of electron transport - PHIE0 (b), and electron transport chain after the Quinone - PHI0 (c) observed for the photobiont of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, subjected to the action of glyphosate herbicide over three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 12
Activities of the enzymes SOD - superoxide dismutase (a), CAT - catalase (b), and APX - ascorbate peroxidase (c) observed in the thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 13
Activities of the enzymes SOD - superoxide desmutase (a), CAT - catalase (b), and APX - ascorbate peroxidase (c) observed in the thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of glyphosate herbicide over three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 14
Concentrations of H2O2 - peroxide (a), TSS - total soluble sugars (b), and MDA - malondialdehyde (c) observed in the thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 15
Concentrations of H2O2 - peroxide (a) and MDA - malondialdehyde (b) observed in thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum, and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of glyphosate herbicide for three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 16
Principal component analysis of the concentrations of cell viability, photosynthetic pigments concentration, chlorophyll a fluorescence, enzymes of antioxidant metabolism, peroxide (H2O2), malondialdehyde (MDA), and total soluble sugars (TSS) in the thallus of the lichen. Parmotrema tinctorum, analyzed as a function of four doses of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1) (a) and as a function of three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours) (b); the thallus of the lichen Usnea barbata, analyzed as a function of four doses of the herbicide (c) and as a function of the three exposure times (d). LC = living cells, PC = plasmolyzed cells, DC = dead cells, ABS/RC = the specific flux of light absorption per reaction center, TR0 /RC = the energy flux captured per reaction center at t = 0, ET0 /RC = the electron transport flux per reaction center, DI0 /RC = the specific energy dissipation flux at the level of the chlorophylls of the antenna complex, PiAbs = the photosynthetic performance index, PHIP0 = maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry, PHI0 = probability that an exciton moves an electron down the electron transport chain after the Quinone, PHIE0 = quantum yield of electron transport, Chla = chlorophyll a, Chlb = chlorophyll b, Chl total = total chlorophyll, CAT = catalase, APX = ascorbate peroxidase and SOD = superoxide dismutase.
Figure 17
Tolerance index to high doses of glyphosate (19.2 mg L-1) (a) and long exposure time (72 hours) (b) observed for thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of the herbicide. Student's t-test was used to indicate a difference at P <0.05.
Figure 4
Concentration of photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a (a) and total (b) and carotenoids (c) observed for the photobiont of lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 5
The concentrations of the photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll a (a), chlorophyll b (b), and total chlorophyll (c), chlorophyll a/b ratio (d), and carotenoids (e) were observed for the photobionts of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of glyphosate herbicide for three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 6
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: Specific light absorption flux per reaction center - ABS/RC (a), captured energy flux per reaction center at t = 0 - TR0/RC (b), and specific energy dissipation flux at the level of the chlorophylls of the antenna complex - DI0 /RC (c) were observed for the photobiont of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, subjected to different concentrations of the glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 7
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: Photosynthetic performance index - PiAbs (a), quantum yield of electron transport - PHIE0 (b), electron transport chain after the Quinone - PHI 0 (c), and maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry - PHIP0 (d) observed for the photobiont of lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, subjected to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 8
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: FV/FM - maximum quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry; ETR - apparent electron transport rate; ΦII - effective quantum yield of photochemical energy conversion in PSII; ΦNPQ - quantum yield of regulated energy dissipation, and ΦNO - quantum yield of unregulated energy dissipation, observed for the lichen photobiont, Parmotrema tinctorum, subjected to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1).
Figure 9
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: FV/FM - maximum quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry; ETR - apparent electron transport rate; ΦII - effective quantum yield of photochemical energy conversion in PSII; ΦNPQ - quantum yield of regulated energy dissipation, and ΦNO - quantum yield of unregulated energy dissipation, observed for the lichen photobiont, Usnea barbata, subjected to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1).
Figure 10
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: Specific light absorption flux per reaction center - ABS/RC (a), captured energy flux per reaction center at t = 0 - TR0 /RC (b), electron transport flux per reaction center - ET0 /RC (c), and specific energy dissipation flux at the level of the chlorophylls of the antenna complex - DI0 /RC (d) observed for the photobiont of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, subjected to the action of glyphosate herbicide over three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 11
Chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters: Photosynthetic performance index - PiAbs (a), quantum yield of electron transport - PHIE0 (b), and electron transport chain after the Quinone - PHI0 (c) observed for the photobiont of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, subjected to the action of glyphosate herbicide over three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 12
Activities of the enzymes SOD - superoxide dismutase (a), CAT - catalase (b), and APX - ascorbate peroxidase (c) observed in the thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 13
Activities of the enzymes SOD - superoxide desmutase (a), CAT - catalase (b), and APX - ascorbate peroxidase (c) observed in the thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of glyphosate herbicide over three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 14
Concentrations of H2O2 - peroxide (a), TSS - total soluble sugars (b), and MDA - malondialdehyde (c) observed in the thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to different concentrations of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1). The straight lines represent the fitted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 15
Concentrations of H2O2 - peroxide (a) and MDA - malondialdehyde (b) observed in thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum, and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of glyphosate herbicide for three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours). The straight lines represent the adjusted model and the prediction intervals (95%) are in grey.
Figure 16
Principal component analysis of the concentrations of cell viability, photosynthetic pigments concentration, chlorophyll a fluorescence, enzymes of antioxidant metabolism, peroxide (H2O2), malondialdehyde (MDA), and total soluble sugars (TSS) in the thallus of the lichen. Parmotrema tinctorum, analyzed as a function of four doses of glyphosate herbicide (0.0, 4.8, 9.6, and 19.2 mg L-1) (a) and as a function of three exposure times (24, 48, and 72 hours) (b); the thallus of the lichen Usnea barbata, analyzed as a function of four doses of the herbicide (c) and as a function of the three exposure times (d). LC = living cells, PC = plasmolyzed cells, DC = dead cells, ABS/RC = the specific flux of light absorption per reaction center, TR0 /RC = the energy flux captured per reaction center at t = 0, ET0 /RC = the electron transport flux per reaction center, DI0 /RC = the specific energy dissipation flux at the level of the chlorophylls of the antenna complex, PiAbs = the photosynthetic performance index, PHIP0 = maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry, PHI0 = probability that an exciton moves an electron down the electron transport chain after the Quinone, PHIE0 = quantum yield of electron transport, Chla = chlorophyll a, Chlb = chlorophyll b, Chl total = total chlorophyll, CAT = catalase, APX = ascorbate peroxidase and SOD = superoxide dismutase.
Figure 17
Tolerance index to high doses of glyphosate (19.2 mg L-1) (a) and long exposure time (72 hours) (b) observed for thalli of the lichen species, Parmotrema tinctorum and Usnea barbata, submitted to the action of the herbicide. Student's t-test was used to indicate a difference at P <0.05.
Biomarkers of pollution by glyphosate in the lichens, Parmotrema tinctorium and Usnea barbata
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