Bioeconomic management of invasive alien species: cost-benefit analysis of control strategies in protected ecosystems

Gestão bioeconômica de espécies exóticas invasoras: análise de custo-benefício de estratégias de controle em ecossistemas protegidos

Abstract

Invasive species represent a major environmental danger which threatens to destroy the biodiversity of protected areas throughout the world. The research evaluated costs and benefits associated with various methods for controlling invasive species across five protected sites in Malaysia which included Taman Negara National Park and Selangor Forests and Kuala Selangor Nature Park and Gunung Mulu National Park and Danum Valley Conservation Area. The research used three control methods which included mechanical and chemical and biological methods to treat three types of plant species and two types of fish species and one type of animal species (e.g. Rattus rattus) in controlled experimental plots which operated with three different testing intervals. The research demonstrated that biological control achieved 80.7% population reduction after 12 months which established it as the most effective long-term method while chemical control achieved 75.6% population control and mechanical control achieved 57.4% population control. The chemical method produced its best results during the first three months when it achieved 91.7% effectiveness. The benefit-cost ratio was 3.84 for biological method and 2.50 for chemical method and 1.71 for mechanical method. The biological method generated a net present value of 42.1 million ringgit throughout its 20-year operational period. The chemical method produced its most detrimental impact on non-target species when it caused 34.2% mortality in beneficial insects while the biological method demonstrated its least detrimental effects. The study results demonstrate that biological control serves as the most economically efficient and environmentally sustainable solution to handle invasive species in Malaysian protected areas although its initial effectiveness remains lower than other methods. The no-action scenario with losses of 89.4 million ringgit over the next 20 years emphasizes the importance of investing in timely control.

Keywords:
invasive species; bioeconomics; cost-benefit analysis; biological control; protected areas; Malaysia

Resumo

Espécies invasoras representam um grande perigo ambiental que ameaça destruir a biodiversidade de áreas protegidas em todo o mundo. A pesquisa avaliou custos e benefícios associados a vários métodos de controle de espécies invasoras em cinco áreas protegidas na Malásia: Parque Nacional Taman Negara, Florestas de Selangor, Parque Natural Kuala Selangor, Parque Nacional Gunung Mulu e Área de Conservação do Vale de Danum. O estudo utilizou três métodos de controle — mecânico, químico e biológico — para tratar três tipos de espécies vegetais, dois tipos de espécies de peixes e um tipo de espécie animal (por exemplo, Rattus rattus) em parcelas experimentais controladas, operando com três intervalos de teste distintos. A pesquisa demonstrou que o controle biológico alcançou uma redução populacional de 80,7% após 12 meses, consolidando-se como o método mais eficaz de longo prazo, enquanto o controle químico atingiu 75,6% de controle populacional e o mecânico, 57,4%. O método químico apresentou seus melhores resultados nos primeiros três meses, alcançando 91,7% de eficácia. A razão benefício-custo foi de 3,84 para o método biológico, 2,50 para o químico e 1,71 para o mecânico. O método biológico gerou um valor presente líquido de 42,1 milhões de ringgits ao longo de seu período operacional de 20 anos. O método químico causou o maior impacto negativo em espécies não alvo, provocando uma mortalidade de 34,2% em insetos benéficos, ao passo que o método biológico apresentou os efeitos menos prejudiciais. Os resultados do estudo demonstram que o controle biológico é a solução economicamente mais eficiente e ambientalmente sustentável para lidar com espécies invasoras em áreas protegidas da Malásia, embora sua eficácia inicial seja inferior à de outros métodos. O cenário de ausência de ação, com perdas de 89,4 milhões de ringgits nos próximos 20 anos, ressalta a importância de investir em controle oportuno.

Palavras-chave:
espécies invasoras; bioeconomia; análise de custo-benefício; controle biológico; áreas protegidas; Malásia

1. Introduction

The world now considers invasive alien species to be one of the most dangerous threats to global biodiversity (Bang et al., 2022; Eschen et al., 2021). The species create permanent ecological harm through their complete takeover of natural habitats which leads to resource conflicts with local species and results in fundamental ecosystem changes (Kahrić et al., 2022; Malongweni et al., 2025; Mehar et al., 2026). The rate at which these species spread through ecosystems has grown significantly during the last few decades because of increased international trade and human travel and climate change while almost all ecosystems face this problem (Brewington et al., 2024; Abdurahmanov et al., 2025a; Dilorom et al., 2026; Kulzhambekova et al., 2023; Karanina et al., 2024).

Protected ecosystems become more accessible to invasive species because their ecological importance and their function as endangered species habitats create a particular vulnerability (Rai and Singh, 2021). The existence of invasive species leads to faster destruction of native species habitats which serve as the last remaining natural spaces in these regions (Lusizi et al., 2024; Fensham et al., 2024; Abdurahmanov et al., 2025b; Pote et al., 2026). Invasive plants that grow in mangrove forests decrease the carbon storage capacity of these ecosystems while they also eliminate the natural habitat of local aquatic species (Neiva et al., 2024; Ayaa et al., 2022).

Developing countries face significant difficulties in handling invasive species because these species require expensive control methods (Nusran et al., 2025; Saleh et al., 2023). The various methods used to control these species include mechanical and chemical and biological approaches, which differ in their financial requirements and their success rates (Yessenbekova and Turezhanov, 2021; Charcoal Team, 2023). Natural resource managers must select suitable control methods based on three factors: the specific type of invasive species, the total area that requires treatment, and the financial resources that are currently available to them (Bakewell-Stone, 2023; Negi et al., 2019; Ostonokulov et al., 2025; Mohammad et al., 2026).

The traditional methods used for controlling invasive species typically rely on physical and chemical methods while ignoring all economic factors related to treatment (Kumar and Chandrashekar, 2020; Ram, 2020). The evidence shows that control projects fail to achieve success because organizations do not conduct cost-benefit analyses, which leads them to either stop work on projects that require money or to complete projects without achieving their intended results (Tashenova et al., 2024; Sjaifuddin, 2020; Wishah et al., 2026; Al-Assi et al., 2026b). Experts today recommend using a bioeconomic framework for invasive species management because this approach assesses both environmental effects and economic consequences at the same time (Rodriguez Velazquez et al., 2025; Sriasih et al., 2025).

Bioeconomics represents a new method which aims to achieve environmental protection while generating economic advantages (Ntalo et al., 2022; Worku and Tessema, 2019). The approach investigates whether the expenses needed to manage invasive species control efforts for specific species create enough value which safeguards the protected ecosystem (Gousiga et al., 2025). This question demonstrates particular importance because protected areas face challenges in determining the economic value of their ecosystem services (Patel and Narasimhacharya, 2024; Monika and Dhingra, 2023; Weshah et al., 2025).

Managers can use cost-benefit assessment of different control methods to determine which financial resource allocation method will provide the highest efficiency (Khan et al., 2023; Rahman et al., 2020; Magableh et al., 2026). Complete eradication of an invasive species becomes excessively expensive in certain situations which makes containment or low-level control methods the better option (Bhadewad et al., 2018; Ramkumar et al., 2023). Organizations should consider that their initial need to spend large sums on eradication will ultimately save them more money than paying for annual control operations (Silva et al., 2017; Patil et al., 2023; Al-Assi et al., 2026a).

Malaysia faces environmental threats from multiple invasive species which endanger its rainforests and coastal ecosystems (Wan Ibrahim et al., 2021; Sivan et al., 2023; Ali et al., 2026). Acacia mangium introduced for afforestation purposes has now turned into an invasive weed which replaces native plant species (Almajali et al., 2026; Ogawa and Yazaki, 2018). Invasive fish species such as tilapia have also severely reduced native freshwater fish populations (Quy et al., 2024; Umirqulova et al., 2025). The issues require development of a unified system which enables effective bioeconomic management of invasive species.

The aim of this study is to assess the cost-benefit of different methods of controlling invasive species in protected ecosystems in Malaysia. This study presents economic solutions which protect biodiversity through its application of bioeconomic principles from a different perspective. The research outcomes assist managers and policymakers in establishing budget allocations and choosing the most suitable control methods.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study area and target species

The research took place across five designated protected areas which include Taman Negara National Park in Peninsular Malaysia and Selangor State Forest Reserve and Kuala Selangor Conservation Area and Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and Danum Valley Conservation Area in Sabah. The researchers selected these sites because they contained diverse ecosystems and showed high levels of invasive species populations. The researchers identified Acacia mangium and Mimosa pigra as invasive woody plants and Oreochromis mossambicus and Clarias gariepinus as invasive fish and Rattus rattus as an invasive animal species which the Malaysian Forestry Department and Malaysian Environmental Protection Agency declared as priority species for control. The researchers created distribution maps for each species by using Sentinel-2 satellite data and conducting field visits which took place from June 2024 until May 2025.

2.2. Design and implementation of control methods

The researchers tested three distinct ways to control each invasive species by conducting their experiments on identical one-hectare plots which they used to study plants and one-kilometer river sections which they used to study fish. The research team used mechanical control methods which involved tree felling and manual collection and physical trap installation. The researchers used glyphosate herbicides to control plant growth and they applied approved pesticides to control fish and rodent populations according to safety requirements. The study used biological control methods which involved plant control through the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and native predatory fish Channa striatus introduction for invasive fish control and Salmonella enterica bacterium application for rodent control. The researchers tested three different treatments at each site while control sites which did not use any treatment served as comparison points. The field operations took place through a partnership between technical teams from the Forestry Department and the Malaysian Environmental Protection Agency.

2.3. Cost and effectiveness data collection

Each control method required separate cost data which included direct costs that covered manpower equipment and consumables and transportation expenses and indirect costs that included training of personnel and permits and monitoring expenses. The calculation of manpower costs used the wage rate that the Malaysian Ministry of Labour had approved. The researchers evaluated control effectiveness through their assessment of invasive species density changes at one month three month six month and twelve month intervals after the implementation of control measures. The researchers counted stems in 10 x 10 m quadrats for plant density measurements and used netting to measure fish population while calculating catch per unit effort. The researchers evaluated rodent population density through the use of live traps and the mark-recapture method. The researchers conducted studies to assess how each control method affected non-target species and environmental conditions in the experimental plots.

2.4. Cost-benefit analysis and bioeconomic modeling

Cost-benefit analysis was used to analyze the data by calculating net present value and benefit-cost ratio. The retained ecosystem service value through control measures was assessed by using the benefit transfer method together with existing data on similar ecosystems found in Southeast Asia. For uncertainty analysis, our team used Excel to perform Monte Carlo simulation with 10,000 iterations. The research team created a dynamic bioeconomic model through Matlab software to investigate how invasive species population and control costs and biodiversity conservation benefits interact across a 20-year period. The researchers validated the model by using independent data from various Malaysian regions and through comparisons with results from similar Southeast Asian studies. The researchers conducted sensitivity analysis for key parameters which included discount rate and invasive species population growth rate and control method effectiveness.

3. Results

The analysis of data collected from field experiments in five protected areas of Malaysia provided comprehensive findings on the cost-effectiveness of different control strategies for invasive alien species. The research results appear in nine tables and one figure which includes statistical descriptions that show important patterns and connections found in this study.

Table 1 displays the fundamental density measurements of five invasive alien species at five protected Malaysian areas before any control measures began. The Selangor State Forests contained the most Acacia mangium trees which grew at a density of 187.4 trees per hectare while Kuala Selangor Nature Park contained the highest population of Mimosa pigra with 213.5 plants per hectare. The most severe invasion pressure in coastal wetland ecosystems appeared at Kuala Selangor Nature Park which recorded its highest densities of Oreochromis mossambicus with 567.8 fish per kilometer and Clarias gariepinus with 324.9 fish per kilometer.

Table 1
Density of invasive alien species in selected protected areas of Malaysia (Pre-Control, 2024).

Protected Area	Acacia mangium (trees/ha)	Mimosa pigra (plants/ha)	Oreochromis mossambicus (fish/km)	Clarias gariepinus (fish/km)	Rattus rattus (individuals/ha)
Taman Negara National Park	124.6	78.3	245.7	187.3	42.5
Selangor State Forests	187.4	156.8	312.5	245.6	67.8
Kuala Selangor Nature Park	45.3	213.5	567.8	324.9	23.4
Gunung Mulu National Park	89.7	34.6	78.9	45.6	18.9
Danum Valley Conservation Area	67.8	23.4	134.5	78.9	15.6

Table 2 presents the complete cost breakdown for various control techniques used to manage invasive plant species. The total cost of mechanical control reached its peak at RM12400 per hectare for Acacia mangium and RM13430 per hectare for Mimosa pigra because labor expenses and equipment expenditures drove up operational costs. The total expenses for biological control which reached RM7350 per hectare for Acacia and RM7630 per hectare for Mimosa proved to be the most economical method although this approach incurred the highest monitoring expenses because it needed longer assessment times.

Table 2
Cost structure of different control methods for invasive plant species (RM per hectare).

Cost Component	Mechanical Control (Acacia)	Chemical Control (Acacia)	Biological Control (Acacia)	Mechanical Control (Mimosa)	Chemical Control (Mimosa)	Biological Control (Mimosa)
Labor	4,850	2,340	1,890	5,230	2,560	1,980
Equipment	3,420	890	450	3,670	950	480
Materials	1,230	3,450	1,670	1,450	3,780	1,720
Transportation	1,560	1,230	890	1,670	1,340	920
Training	450	670	890	480	690	910
Monitoring	890	1,120	1,560	930	1,180	1,620
Total Cost	12,400	9,700	7,350	13,430	10,500	7,630

Table 3 presents the cost analysis for controlling invasive fish species in river ecosystems. The total expenses for mechanical control which used nets and traps reached RM12,250 per kilometer for tilapia and RM12,920 per kilometer for catfish with equipment costs making up the main portion of the expenses. Chemical control showed intermediate costs at RM9,690 and RM10,300 per kilometer respectively, while biological control through introduction of native predator Channa striatus proved most economical at RM7,470 and RM7,790 per kilometer, though requiring longer monitoring periods.

Table 3
Cost structure of different control methods for invasive fish species (RM per river kilometer).

Cost Component	Mechanical Control (Tilapia)	Chemical Control (Tilapia)	Biological Control (Tilapia)	Mechanical Control (Catfish)	Chemical Control (Catfish)	Biological Control (Catfish)
Labor	3,450	1,890	2,340	3,670	1,980	2,450
Equipment	5,670	1,230	890	5,890	1,340	920
Materials	890	4,230	1,450	950	4,560	1,520
Transportation	1,230	890	670	1,340	920	710
Training	340	560	780	360	580	800
Monitoring	670	890	1,340	710	920	1,390
Total Cost	12,250	9,690	7,470	12,920	10,300	7,790

Table 4 provides a summary of the expenses required to manage Rattus rattus invasive species in protected forest areas. The total expenses for mechanical control through live traps amounted to RM6,470 per hectare which became the most costly choice because of its demanding requirements for trap operation and animal removal. Chemical control through approved rodenticides and biological control through Salmonella enterica both reached a total cost of RM5,700 per hectare yet the two methods showed distinct cost distribution patterns because chemical control expenses came from material costs while biological control expenses came from monitoring activities.

Table 4
Cost structure of different control methods for invasive rodent species (RM per hectare).

Cost Component	Mechanical Control	Chemical Control	Biological Control
Labor	2,340	1,560	1,890
Equipment	1,890	450	340
Materials	890	2,340	1,230
Transportation	670	450	560
Training	230	340	560
Monitoring	450	560	1,120
Total Cost	6,470	5,700	5,700

Table 5 displays the time effectiveness measurement results of various control methods at four testing points which were conducted throughout a one-year period. Chemical control achieved the highest initial reduction rates at one month, ranging from 85.4 to 92.4% across all species. Chemical control showed declining effectiveness by month twelve with reductions dropping to 69.8 to 78.9%. Biological control showed its initial effectiveness at 32.1 to 45.6% but its effectiveness improved over time, which reached 76.7 to 84.5% reduction by month twelve. This pattern suggests establishment of self-sustaining control agents.

Table 5
Effectiveness of control methods at different time intervals (percent reduction).

Control Method	Target Species	1 Month	3 Months	6 Months	12 Months
Mechanical	Acacia mangium	78.5	82.3	76.8	65.4
Chemical	Acacia mangium	92.4	94.5	89.7	78.9
Biological	Acacia mangium	45.6	67.8	78.9	84.5
Mechanical	Mimosa pigra	76.8	80.5	74.3	62.3
Chemical	Mimosa pigra	91.2	93.4	87.8	76.5
Biological	Mimosa pigra	42.3	64.5	76.7	82.1
Mechanical	Oreochromis mossambicus	67.8	71.2	63.4	52.3
Chemical	Oreochromis mossambicus	86.7	88.9	82.3	71.2
Biological	Oreochromis mossambicus	34.5	56.7	71.2	78.9
Mechanical	Clarias gariepinus	65.6	69.8	61.2	50.4
Chemical	Clarias gariepinus	85.4	87.6	80.9	69.8
Biological	Clarias gariepinus	32.1	54.3	68.9	76.7
Mechanical	Rattus rattus	72.3	76.5	67.8	56.7
Chemical	Rattus rattus	89.8	91.2	84.5	73.4
Biological	Rattus rattus	38.9	61.2	74.5	81.2

The study examined control effectiveness across five invasive species through their control methods which yielded different results (Figure 1). Chemical control shows peak effectiveness at three months with 91.7% reduction which decreases to 75.6% at twelve months showing that multiple treatments are necessary. The biological control method follows a sigmoidal pattern which starts with a slow response but develops into a fast growth period between three and six months before reaching an 80.7% success rate at twelve months, which shows that biological methods require time to show their results. The mechanical control method operates at an average effectiveness level which decreases from 76.1% at three months to 57.4% at twelve months because of regrowth and reinvasion.

Figure 1
Temporal dynamics of control effectiveness by method type.

Table 6 investigates the unintentional environmental effects which result from various control methods. The chemical control method produced the greatest adverse effects on non-target species through its operations which resulted in 34.2% insect mortality and 28.9% fish mortality during plant and fish control operations respectively. The biological control method showed the least impact on non-target species by demonstrating positive effects on soil organic matter and water quality index through its control of invasive species.

Table 6
Non-target effects of different control methods.

Control Method	Beneficial Plant Species Affected (%)	Beneficial Insect Mortality (%)	Native Fish Mortality (%)	Soil Organic Matter Change (%)	Water Quality Index Change
Mechanical (Plants)	12.4	8.7	0.0	-2.3	-1.2
Chemical (Plants)	23.5	34.2	0.0	-5.6	-8.7
Biological (Plants)	3.2	2.1	0.0	+1.8	+0.5
Mechanical (Fish)	0.0	0.0	15.6	0.0	-3.4
Chemical (Fish)	1.2	2.3	28.9	-1.2	-15.6
Biological (Fish)	0.0	0.0	4.5	+0.5	+2.3
Mechanical (Rodents)	2.3	3.4	0.0	-0.8	0.0
Chemical (Rodents)	5.6	12.3	0.0	-2.3	-4.5
Biological (Rodents)	0.5	0.8	0.0	+1.2	+0.8

The cost-effectiveness metric in Table 7 shows total cost which the researchers calculated through two elements which show twelve-month reduction. The most cost-effective method in biological control across all species demonstrated total cost to achieve results between RM70.2 and RM101.6 per hectare reduction. The chemical control method displayed moderate cost-effectiveness which ranged from RM80.2 to RM147.6 per percent reduction, while mechanical control showed the least cost-effectiveness with costs between RM114.1 and RM256.3 per percent reduction. The field of mechanical fish control shows high expenses because netting operations in river systems require intensive work.

Table 7
Cost-effectiveness analysis of control methods (RM per percent reduction per hectare).

Control Method	Acacia mangium	Mimosa pigra	Oreochromis mossambicus	Clarias gariepinus	Rattus rattus
Mechanical	189.6	215.7	234.2	256.3	114.1
Chemical	122.9	137.3	136.1	147.6	80.2
Biological	87.0	92.9	94.7	101.6	70.2

Table 8 shows the economic assessment of various control methods which extends over 20 years and uses an 8% discount rate. The highest net present value from all control methods human resources showed RM42.1 million because biological control system generated ecosystem service benefits worth 3.84 times the amount invested. The chemical control method produced a benefit-cost ratio of 2.50 together with an Net Present Value (NPV) of RM29.2 million, whereas mechanical control method showed the least value at 1.71 ratio. The no-action scenario resulted in negative NPV of RM89.4 million, representing the value of ecosystem services lost to continued invasion.

Table 8
Benefit-cost analysis of control strategies over 20-year time horizon.

Control Strategy	Total Cost (RM million)	Total Benefit (RM million)	Net Present Value (RM million)	Benefit-Cost Ratio	Internal Rate of Return (%)
Mechanical Only	24.7	42.3	17.6	1.71	8.4
Chemical Only	19.5	48.7	29.2	2.50	12.7
Biological Only	14.8	56.9	42.1	3.84	18.9
Integrated (All methods)	21.3	58.4	37.1	2.74	14.2
No Action (Baseline)	0.0	0.0	-89.4	0.00	-

The Monte Carlo simulation results shown in Table 9 evaluated the impact of three uncertain parameters, which included discount rate and invasive species population growth and control effectiveness. The biological control method achieved the highest probability of positive net present value, which reached 98.9%, while producing an average NPV of RM41.8 million, which showed a confidence interval that extended from RM18.2 million to RM67.9 million. The chemical and integrated strategies achieved high success probabilities of 96.8% and 97.6% respectively, while mechanical control demonstrated the highest success rate of 92.3%, which experienced the greatest fluctuation in success rate because of its dependence on labor costs.

Table 9
Monte Carlo simulation results for uncertainty analysis (10,000 iterations).

Control Strategy	Mean NPV (RM million)	Standard Deviation	5th Percentile	95th Percentile	Probability of Positive NPV (%)
Mechanical Only	17.2	8.4	3.8	31.5	92.3
Chemical Only	28.9	11.2	10.5	48.7	96.8
Biological Only	41.8	14.3	18.2	67.9	98.9
Integrated	36.8	12.8	15.3	59.4	97.6

4. Discussion

The study results show that biological control methods need more time than short-term results demonstrate but they provide better results than other methods. The results showed that biological control methods achieved an 80.7% reduction in the invasive species population after 12 months while the same figure for chemical methods was 75.6% and for mechanical methods was 57.4%. The study calculated that biological methods had a 23.3% advantage over mechanical methods at the study period end which reached statistical significance level p < 0.05. The biological methods study results demonstrate that their control agents require time to establish their effects which produce self-sustaining control systems after their establishment. The cost-benefit analysis also confirms the superiority of biological methods. The benefit-cost ratio for biological methods was 3.84 which indicates that each RM1 investment generates RM3.84 in benefits. The chemical method reached a value of 2.50 while the mechanical method resulted in a valuation of 1.71. The NPV of the biological method over a 20-year horizon was estimated to be 42.1 million ringgit which shows a major difference from the chemical method of 29.2 million ringgit and the mechanical method of 17.6 million ringgit. The Mont Carlo simulation produced results which showed that biological method NPV positive outcomes occurred with 98.9% probability which represented the highest method confidence level.

This study examined how control methods affected non-target species through their side effects. The chemical method resulted in the strongest harmful impacts because it destroyed 34.2% of beneficial insects during the plant control operation and 28.9% of native fish during the invasive fish control operation. The mechanical method caused 12.4% of beneficial plant species to decline in their population. The biological method produced minimal harmful impacts which led to improvements in various indicators including soil organic matter that increased by 1.8% and water quality that improved by 2.3 points. Protected area managers need this finding because ecosystem health in these areas needs protection as much as invasive species need control (Fensham et al., 2024; Dildora et al., 2026; Ghoneim et al., 2026; Karanina & Karaulov, 2024). Analysis of effectiveness over different time periods showed that the choice of control method should be made according to the management objectives and the time horizon of the project. The chemical method provides a fast solution for short-term control because it achieves 91.7% reduction within three months. The biological method achieves sustainable long-term eradication because it achieves 80.7% reduction within twelve months while showing an increasing trend. The mechanical method did not perform the best in any of the time periods and faced a sharp decrease in effectiveness in the long term (from 76.1% in the third month to 57.4% in the 12th month), indicating a rapid return of the invasive species to the cleared areas.

The biological method achieved its highest cost-effectiveness according to its unit effectiveness which required 70.2 to 101.6 ringgit per hectare to achieve one percent reduction. Chemical methods came in second with RM80.2 to RM147.6 and mechanical methods came in last with RM114.1 to RM256.3. The different species showed a similar pattern because control costs for invasive fish control reached their highest point through the use of mechanical methods which required RM256.3 to achieve percent reduction from catfish control. The biological methods for rodent control showed their least cost at biological methods which required RM70.2. The first density of invasive species which existed at different protected areas determined the success rate and expenses required for control operations (Quy et al., 2024; Yessenbekova and Turezhanov, 2021). The Kuala Selangor Nature Park, with the highest density of tilapia (567.8 per km) and Mimosa pigra (213.5 plants per hectare), required the highest investment. The Danum Valley Protected Area required the lowest control expenses because it had the least invasive species presence. The research demonstrates that organizations need to implement early detection systems for invasive species because control expenses increase when invasions reach higher levels.

The analysis of the no-action scenario showed that the cost of continued invasive species activity in protected areas would be RM89.4 million over the next 20 years. The present value of ecosystem service loss and biodiversity destruction and essential future control expenses makes up this total. The control costs, which range from RM14.8 million to RM24.7 million, demonstrate that funding for invasive species control work serves both environmental and economic purposes.

5. Conclusions

The research assessed development expenses and advantages of invasive species control methods which protected Malaysian ecosystems. The biological control method achieves superior results because it operates at reduced effectiveness during initial stages. The biological method provided economic advantages through its benefit-cost ratio of 3.84 and net present value of 42.1 million ringgit which lasted for 20 years. The chemical method generated a benefit-cost ratio of 2.50 while the mechanical method produced a benefit-cost ratio of 1.71. The biological method achieved 80.7% effectiveness after12 months which showed minor environmental effects on non-target organisms and created positive environmental outcomes.

The study showed that management objectives should determine which control method to select for each protected area based on its specific time requirements and environmental conditions. The chemical method provides effective short-term control which achieves 91.7% reduction within three months, but the biological method delivers superior long-term results through its 80.7% increase that continues until the twelfth month. The mechanical method becomes the least attractive investment option because it experiences a significant efficiency decline from 76.1% to 57.4% which results in the highest cost of effectiveness. The costs of controlling invasive species depend on their initial density, and early detection prevents costs from increasing at an exponential rate.

The study results show that Malaysian Environmental Protection Agency managers and policymakers should prioritize funding for biological control methods when they plan their budget for invasive species management. The initial funding for research development activities which aim to create local biological control agents and train personnel and build production facilities will deliver substantial economic benefits throughout future years. The development of a complete monitoring system together with an evaluation program which detects new species invasions and enables fast response during initial invasion phases will save costs which would arise from controlling established invasive species. The no-action scenario with losses of 89.4 million ringgit over the next 20 years serves as a warning to managers because their decision delays will result in national capital loss and permanent damage to essential national ecosystems.

Acknowledgements

This research is funded by INTI International University.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available based on the request.

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*

e-mail: [e-mail]

Editor:

Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  10 Aug 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  26 Apr 2026
• Accepted
  12 June 2026