Digitalization and three-dimensional printing of skulls from Brazilian wild mammals for comparative veterinary anatomy teachingAbstract
Three-dimensional (3D) digitalization and additive manufacturing have emerged as promising tools for anatomical education, particularly in contexts where access to biological specimens is limited. This study aimed to develop digital models and three-dimensional printed replicas of skulls from Brazilian wild mammal species and to evaluate mesh generation and technical feasibility for 3D printing in comparative veterinary anatomy. Skulls from multiple wild mammal species were prepared using osteotechnical procedures and digitized using a structured-light 3D scanner. The resulting point clouds were converted into polygonal meshes, edited and refined using specialized software, and then exported as STL files. Physical models were produced using fused deposition modeling (FDM) with polylactic acid (PLA) filament. Most specimens generated polygonal meshes suitable for additive manufacturing, enabling preservation of major macroscopic morphological features in the printed models. Limitations were observed in structures with complex geometries or specific surface properties, which affected scanning quality and required additional mesh processing. Integrating 3D scanning and additive manufacturing proved to be a technically feasible approach for producing anatomical models of wild mammals. Although no quantitative morphometric validation was performed, these technologies may represent complementary educational resources in comparative veterinary anatomy and may contribute to expanding access to anatomical materials in contexts where biological specimens are limited.
Keywords:
additive manufacturing; comparative anatomy; osteology; veterinary education
Resumo
O uso de tecnologias digitais no ensino de anatomia tem se expandido significativamente nos últimos anos, proporcionando novas possibilidades para visualização e reprodução de estruturas biológicas. Nesse contexto, a digitalização tridimensional (3D) e a manufatura aditiva têm se destacado como ferramentas promissoras para o desenvolvimento de recursos didáticos anatômicos. Este estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver modelos digitais e réplicas impressas em 3D de crânios de mamíferos silvestres brasileiros e avaliar a geração das malhas e a viabilidade técnica para impressão 3D na anatomia veterinária comparada. Crânios de diferentes espécies de mamíferos silvestres foram preparados por meio de técnicas osteotécnicas e digitalizados utilizando um scanner 3D de luz estruturada. As nuvens de pontos obtidas foram convertidas em malhas poligonais, editadas e refinadas com o auxílio de softwares especializados, e exportadas em formato STL. Os modelos físicos foram produzidos por manufatura aditiva utilizando modelagem por deposição fundida (FDM) com filamento de ácido polilático (PLA). A maioria dos espécimes gerou malhas poligonais adequadas para manufatura aditiva, permitindo a preservação das principais características morfológicas macroscópicas nos modelos impressos. Limitações foram observadas em estruturas com geometrias complexas ou propriedades superficiais específicas, as quais influenciaram a qualidade da digitalização e demandaram processamento adicional das malhas. A integração entre digitalização 3D e manufatura aditiva mostrou-se uma abordagem tecnicamente viável para a produção de modelos anatômicos de mamíferos silvestres. Embora não tenha sido realizada validação morfométrica quantitativa, essas tecnologias podem representar recursos didáticos complementares na anatomia veterinária comparada e contribuir para ampliar o acesso a materiais anatômicos em contextos nos quais o acesso a espécimes biológicos é limitado.
Palavras-chave:
manufatura aditiva; anatomia comparada; osteologia; ensino veterinário
1. Introduction
Studying anatomy aims to understand the form, arrangement, and structure of the tissues and organs that compose the body. The term anatomy derives from the Greek word meaning “to cut apart,” reflecting the traditional use of cadaver dissection as a fundamental method in the teaching and learning process in medical and veterinary sciences (1). This approach remains essential for training professionals in several fields, particularly those related to human and animal health.
Osteology, a branch of anatomy, is dedicated to the study of bones and their associated structures. The skeletal system plays fundamental roles in body support, protection of vital organs, locomotion, hematopoiesis, and storage of essential minerals (1,2). Therefore, a detailed understanding of bone anatomy and its morphological variations is essential in both human and veterinary medicine (3,4). Osteological collections represent an important resource in veterinary sciences for studying comparative anatomy, enabling the identification, classification, and comparison of skeletal systems among different animal species.
The preservation and maintenance of osteological collections are particularly relevant in countries with high biodiversity, such as Brazil, where a wide diversity of wild mammal species can be represented in anatomical collections (5,6). These collections play an important role in teaching and research, supporting the study of morphological variation and the relationship between anatomical structure and ecological function.
Morphological differences among taxa often reflect evolutionary adaptations related to feeding habits and ecological niches. For example, carnivorous mammals typically present sharp and pointed teeth adapted for capturing and tearing prey, whereas herbivorous species possess flattened molars adapted for grinding plant material. In contrast, species such as anteaters (order Xenarthra) lack teeth and exhibit highly specialized feeding adaptations. These morphological variations reinforce the relevance of comparative anatomical studies among mammalian taxa (7). However, the availability of osteological specimens from wild animals in teaching collections is often limited. The acquisition, preparation, and preservation of skeletal material may involve logistical difficulties, ethical considerations, and conservation constraints, resulting in reduced access to representative anatomical material for veterinary training.
Three-dimensional (3D) capture and digitization technologies, initially developed for industrial inspection, have expanded into several scientific fields in recent decades, including medicine, dentistry, and biological sciences (8). In the educational context, these tools enable creating interactive digital anatomical models which can be manipulated in virtual environments and reproduced physically using 3D printing technologies (9).
The rapid development of 3D printing technologies has increased accessibility to these tools, enabling the digitization, reproduction, and preservation of anatomical specimens. These resources have shown considerable potential in undergraduate veterinary education, supporting practical teaching activities and facilitating the study of anatomical structures (10,11). In addition, the production of anatomical replicas from wild animals may expand the diversity of species available for comparative anatomical study (12). Despite these advances, challenges remain regarding digital reconstruction and printing complex anatomical structures such as skulls, which often present intricate geometries and thin bone structures which may affect the preservation of anatomical details in printed models.
Therefore, this study aimed to develop digital models and three-dimensional printed replicas of skulls from Brazilian wild mammal species, evaluating the characteristics of the generated meshes, their suitability for 3D printing, and their applicability as anatomical teaching resources in comparative veterinary anatomy.
2. Material and methods
2.1 Specimen selection
The selection of wild species and anatomical structures was based on the availability of specimens obtained from animals that died naturally and were received by the Center for Medicine and Research on Wild Animals (CEMPAS), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science (FMVZ), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu campus, and from the Municipal Zoological Park of Bauru. Additional specimens were obtained from anatomical collections of the Universidade Paulista (UNIP), Bauru campus, and from the Zoology and Anatomy sectors of the Department of Structural and Functional Biology of the Institute of Biosciences (IBB), UNESP, Botucatu.
The analyzed specimens primarily consisted of skulls from different wild mammal species, including Puma concolor, Leopardus pardalis, Leopardus tigrinus, Chrysocyon brachyurus, Lontra longicaudis, Sapajus sp., Myrmecophaga tridactyla, Tamandua tetradactyla, Dasypus novemcinctus, Didelphis albiventris, Marmosops paulensis, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, Cuniculus paca, Dasyprocta sp., Pecari tajacu and Subulo gouazoubira. Additional non-mammalian structures, including a toucan beak (family Ramphastidae) and a freshwater turtle carapace/plastron fragment (Trachemys dorbigni), as well as deer antlers (Subulo gouazoubira), were used as preliminary test structures to evaluate technical limitations related to surface properties, reflectivity, and geometric complexity during scanning.
All procedures followed the ethical guidelines established by Brazilian legislation (Law no. 11.794/2008; Decree no. 6.899/2009) and the regulations of the National Council for Animal Experimentation Control (CONCEA), under approval of the Ethics Committee on Animal Use (CEUA protocol no. 0376/2023).
2.2 Preparation of specimens
The skeletal structures were prepared using osteotechnical procedures adapted from standard anatomical techniques (13) to obtain cleaned bone specimens suitable for digitalization. Frozen specimens were thawed at room temperature for approximately 12 hours, followed by manual removal of soft tissues using anatomical forceps, scalpels and scissors.
After mechanical cleaning, the bones were placed in water for approximately 45 days to allow natural maceration and complete removal of residual soft tissues. Based on the condition of the specimens, additional procedures such as boiling, degreasing and bleaching were not necessary. All osteotechnical procedures were performed at the Anatomy Laboratory of the Institute of Biosciences (IBB), UNESP, Botucatu. The overall methodological workflow is illustrated in Figure 1.
Workflow of digitization and three-dimensional reproduction of wild mammal skulls for anatomical and educational purposes. The process included: (A) osteotechnical preparation of the specimen; (B) maceration in water; (C) digitization using a structured-light 3D scanner; (D) generation of the point cloud; (E) digital mesh processing; and (F) production of biomodels by 3D printing.
2.3 Three-dimensional scanning
Three-dimensional digitalization of the anatomical structures was performed using a structured-light 3D scanner (EinScan-SE, Shining 3D). The scanner projects a structured light pattern onto the object’s surface, and two optical sensors capture the reflected light, allowing geometric reconstruction through triangulation. The scanning workflow was adapted from structured-light surface acquisition protocols previously applied to biological structures and anatomical materials (14). Adjustments were performed according to specimen size, geometry, and surface characteristics to optimize surface detection and data acquisition.
The scanning process generated three-dimensional point clouds that were processed using EXScan S software (version 3.1.0.1). Specimens were placed on a rotating platform and scanned from multiple angles to ensure complete surface acquisition. Each scan consisted of approximately 20 capture sequences (“takes”) per rotation. A thin layer of matte developer spray (Spotcheck SKD-S2) was applied prior to scanning to improve surface detection, minimize light reflection, and optimize point cloud acquisition when necessary, particularly in specimens with reflective or dark surfaces.
The average scanning time for each structure was approximately 30 minutes. All scanning sessions were conducted at the Laboratory of Ergonomics and Interfaces (LEI), the Advanced Product Development Center (CADEP), and the Zoology Laboratory of the Institute of Biosciences (IBB), UNESP.
2.4 Mesh processing
The point clouds generated during scanning were converted into polygonal meshes and exported in Standard Triangle Language (STL) format, which represents object surfaces as sets of triangular facets commonly used in additive manufacturing. Mesh editing and repair were performed using GOM Inspect software (free version). Processing steps included removing scanning supports, eliminating artifacts and noise generated during point cloud alignment, and correcting mesh imperfections. Holes were filled using mesh bridging tools to ensure continuous surfaces suitable for additive manufacturing. Additional smoothing and refinement operations were applied when necessary to improve surface quality while preserving major macroscopic anatomical features.
Mesh quality was qualitatively assessed based on surface continuity, absence of artifacts incompatible with fabrication, feasibility of STL generation and printing, extent of manual mesh correction required, preservation of major macroscopic anatomical features, and successful production of the final printed model.
2.5 Three-dimensional printing
The final STL models were prepared for printing using Ultimaker Cura software (version 4.13.1). Model orientation during slicing was defined individually due to the complex geometry of the anatomical structures to minimize printing artifacts and preserve anatomical details.
The models were produced using fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology on a BIQU B1 3D printer. Polylactic acid (PLA) filament was used due to its ease of use, availability, and suitability for educational models.
Printing parameters were defined to improve printing stability and preservation of anatomical details: layer height 0.2 mm; wall thickness 1.2 mm; three wall layers; top and bottom thickness 0.84 mm; cubic infill density 15 %; nozzle temperature 190–210°C; build plate temperature 70°C; printing speed 60 mm/s; cooling fan speed 100 %; tree-type supports with 5 % density; brim adhesion of 8 mm; and nozzle diameter of 0.4 mm.
3. Results
3.1 Test structures
A toucan beak, the carapace/plastron of a freshwater turtle (Trachemys dorbigni), and the antlers of a gray brocket deer (Subulo gouazoubira) were initially used as test structures to evaluate the capabilities and limitations of the scanning system and to establish appropriate acquisition parameters (Figure 2). These preliminary structures enabled identifying specimen- specific limitations related to surface coloration, reflectivity, recessed regions, and geometric complexity during image acquisition.
Examples of technical limitations and challenges observed during the digitization process using structured-light scanning. (A) Difficulty in capturing the surface of a toucan beak due to its dark coloration and low reflectivity; (B) limitation in data acquisition in deep or recessed regions of a turtle shell (carapace/plastron); (C) scanning of a gray brocket deer antler (Subulo gouazoubira), illustrating challenges related to complex geometry and surface irregularities; and (D) comparison between the original structure and the corresponding 3D-printed biomodel, highlighting minor loss of detail during reproduction.
The dark coloration and low reflectivity of the structure during digitization of the toucan beak interfered with light capture, making it difficult to obtain a satisfactory point cloud. Even after two applications of matte spray, the generated mesh did not adequately represent the original geometry of the structure (Figure 2A), requiring greater attention during mesh editing.
The antlers of the gray brocket deer were scanned successfully without major technical limitations. After post-processing and mesh editing, the resulting meshes were suitable for 3D printing and enabled producing physical replicas which preserved the main macroscopic morphological characteristics of the original structures (Figure 2C,D).
3.2 Digitalization of large skulls
The skulls of the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), and maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) required additional adjustments during the scanning process due to their size, which exceeded the dimensions of the scanner’s rotating platform.
Multiple scanning groups were created with the specimens positioned at different angles to ensure full surface coverage and obtain complete digital models. The larger dimensions of these skulls increased the need for repeated repositioning and additional acquisition groups, particularly in elongated or laterally expanded regions. Despite the need for additional acquisition steps, the resulting point clouds generated suitable polygonal meshes for subsequent mesh editing and three-dimensional printing. The use of multiple acquisition groups also increased mesh alignment and editing time compared to smaller specimens.
In the case of the gray brocket deer skull (Subulo gouazoubira), a fracture in the original specimen compromised point cloud continuity and resulted in an initial mesh with discontinuities. Additional manual reconstruction and mesh editing were required to correct discontinuities and obtain a printable model.
3.3 Standard scanning protocol
For the remaining species, including Leopardus pardalis, Leopardus tigrinus, Lontra longicaudis, Sapajus sp., Tamandua tetradactyla, Dasypus novemcinctus, Didelphis albiventris, Marmosops paulensis, Cuniculus paca, and Dasyprocta sp., the predefined scanning protocol was sufficient to generate polygonal meshes of both skulls and mandibles without requiring adjustments to acquisition parameters (Figure 3).
Examples of three-dimensional meshes obtained from scanning skulls of different wild mammal species, illustrating the applicability of the technique across taxonomically diverse taxa. (A) maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus); (B) capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris); (C) collared peccary (Pecari tajacu); (D) giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla); (E) opossum (Didelphis albiventris); (F) wild cat (Leopardus tigrinus); (G) southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla); (H) otter (Lontra longicaudis); (I) capuchin monkey (Sapajus sp.); (J) paca (Cuniculus paca); (K) ocelot (Leopardus pardalis); (L) agouti (Dasyprocta sp.); (M) nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus); (N) mouse opossum (Marmosops paulensis); and (O) puma (Puma concolor).
In general, the physical characteristics of the specimens, including size, geometry, surface texture, and coloration, positively contributed to data acquisition. Noise artifacts generated during scanning were minimal and only required minor corrections during mesh editing. Minor post- processing corrections were mainly required in regions containing complex dentition and thin bone structures due to increased geometric complexity.
Mesh editing time ranged from approximately 30 minutes to two hours, depending on the complexity of each structure. All processed meshes presented sufficient surface continuity and structural integrity for successful conversion into STL files and preparation for additive manufacturing.
Although most specimens were successfully digitized and printed using the predefined workflow, the type and extent of post-processing varied according to specimen size, geometry, surface characteristics, and structural condition. A specimen-specific summary of the main technical challenges encountered, mesh processing requirements, editing times, and printing outcomes is provided in Table 1.
Summary of specimen-specific technical challenges, mesh processing requirements, approximate editing times, and printing outcomes during three-dimensional digitization and additive manufacturing.
3.4 Three-dimensional printing of anatomical models
All digital models generated from the scanning process were successfully printed using fused deposition modeling (FDM). The printed replicas reproduced the main anatomical features of the original specimens with satisfactory structural detail (Figure 4).
Anatomical biomodels produced by three-dimensional printing from digital meshes generated during the scanning process, illustrating the potential applicability of additive manufacturing for comparative anatomy and educational purposes. The models reproduce the main macroscopic morphological features of skulls (uppercase letters) and mandibles (lowercase letters) of different wild mammal species. Skulls: (A) opossum (Didelphis albiventris); (B) wild cat (Leopardus tigrinus); (C) southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla); (D) otter (Lontra longicaudis); (E) capuchin monkey (Sapajus sp.); (F) paca (Cuniculus paca); (G) ocelot (Leopardus pardalis); (H) agouti (Dasyprocta sp.); (I) nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus); (J) mouse opossum (Marmosops paulensis); and (K) puma (Puma concolor). Mandibles: (a) capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris); (b) collared peccary (Pecari tajacu); (c) mouse opossum (Marmosops paulensis); (d) opossum (Didelphis albiventris); (e) wild cat (Leopardus tigrinus); (f) maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus); (g) otter (Lontra longicaudis); (h) capuchin monkey (Sapajus sp.); (i) agouti (Dasyprocta sp.); (j) puma (Puma concolor); and (k) paca (Cuniculus paca).
The printing process required a total of approximately 121 hours and 19 minutes of machine time and consumed 1,917 g of PLA filament. These values exclusively correspond to the final printed models and do not include preliminary test prints or support material discarded during the process.
4. Discussion
The digitalization of anatomical specimens from wild animals, as demonstrated in this study, represents an important advance in expanding access to complementary educational resources in comparative veterinary anatomy. This approach is particularly relevant in biodiversity-rich countries such as Brazil, where the availability of osteological specimens from wild species is often limited due to logistical, ethical, and conservation constraints (6). In this context, generating digital models and physically reproducing them through additive manufacturing provides a complementary and potentially scalable approach for anatomical teaching.
Integrating three-dimensional (3D) scanning and additive manufacturing into anatomical education has been increasingly explored and has shown considerable pedagogical potential. Previous studies have demonstrated that 3D anatomical models can complement traditional cadaver-based teaching by enhancing student engagement and facilitating their understanding of complex spatial relationships between anatomical structures (15,16). In addition, digital models allow repeated use without degradation, contributing to diversified and ethically responsible teaching practices.
Most of the scanned specimens in the present study generated suitable polygonal meshes for 3D printing, supporting the technical feasibility of this workflow to develop anatomical models of wild mammals. The preservation of major macroscopic morphological features observed in the printed biomodels suggests that structured-light scanning may represent a useful approach for reproducing relevant anatomical characteristics across taxonomically diverse species. These findings are consistent with previous reports demonstrating the applicability of digital technologies in anatomical modeling (9,12) and expand this application to a broader diversity of Neotropical species.
It should be noted that no quantitative morphometric validation was performed in the present study. The assessment of the printed models was qualitative and based on visual inspection of the preservation of major macroscopic anatomical features. Therefore, no inference regarding dimensional accuracy should be made from the present findings. Future studies should include morphometric comparisons between original specimens, digital meshes, and printed models to objectively validate dimensional accuracy.
Despite the overall success of the approach, some limitations were identified during the digitalization process. Structures with specific surface characteristics, such as dark coloration or complex geometries, posed challenges for data acquisition, as observed in the toucan beak and the turtle carapace. Similar constraints have been described in studies involving optical scanning of biological materials, where reflectivity and depth variation can affect the quality of point cloud generation (14). These limitations highlight the need for specimen-specific acquisition and post- processing strategies, including repositioning of the specimen during scanning, acquisition of
multiple scanning groups from different angles, use of matte spray to reduce surface reflection when necessary, manual removal of artifacts, mesh bridging, hole filling, and cautious smoothing or refinement of polygonal meshes. These procedures were particularly relevant for structures with dark surfaces, recessed regions, fractures, or complex geometries.
The structured-light scanning method proved to be operationally feasible and compatible with generating meshes suitable for additive manufacturing. Furthermore, the use of fused deposition modeling (FDM) with polylactic acid (PLA) suggested that it is possible to produce models preserving major macroscopic anatomical characteristics using widely available materials and equipment. Previous studies have also highlighted the educational potential of integrating 3D scanning technologies and digital modeling into teaching environments (17).
An additional strength of this study lies in the potential for disseminating and reusing the generated digital models. The availability of these models in public repositories enables their use beyond the original institutional context and may facilitate future educational and collaborative applications. This aspect may contribute to expanding access to anatomical knowledge and aligns with current trends in open science and digital education.
The application of digitalization and prototyping techniques, traditionally associated with engineering and design, showed potential for representing anatomical structures of wild mammals. This interdisciplinary approach contributes to develop complementary anatomical resources which may support different teaching strategies in comparative veterinary anatomy.
Future studies should explore advances in scanning technologies, mesh processing, and printing materials to further improve resolution, durability, and preservation of anatomical details in printed models. In addition, expanding the range of species and anatomical structures included in digital repositories may contribute to develop broader virtual osteological collections, particularly relevant for megadiverse regions such as Brazil.
These findings highlight the relevance of integrating digitalization and additive manufacturing technologies in anatomical sciences, particularly in contexts involving wildlife species. The results obtained in this study may support future applications and further development of these approaches in veterinary education.
5. Conclusion
The integration of three-dimensional (3D) scanning and additive manufacturing proved to be a technically feasible approach for generating anatomical models of wild mammal specimens. The resulting digital meshes enabled producing printed models which preserved major macroscopic anatomical features, although some limitations associated with surface properties and geometric complexity were identified. Although no quantitative morphometric validation was performed, the proposed workflow may represent a complementary resource for comparative veterinary anatomy teaching and may contribute to expanding access to anatomical materials in contexts where biological specimens are limited. Future studies should further investigate quantitative validation and broaden the range of species and structures included in digital collections.
Data availability statement
The digital anatomical models generated in this study are publicly available at the Thingiverse repository (WildLifeAnatomy3D collection): https://www.thingiverse.com/WildLifeAnatomy3D/designs. Additional data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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Generative AI use statement
ChatGPT (OpenAI) was used exclusively for language revision. The authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.
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Edited by
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Editor:
Luiz Augusto B. Brito
