MISOGYNY AND CULTURAL IMPOVERISHMENT: THE EDUCATIONAL EFFECTS OF SYMBOLIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN SPORTS MEDIA

MISOGINIA E EMPOBRECIMENTO CULTURAL: OS EFEITOS EDUCATIVOS DA VIOLÊNCIA SIMBÓLICA CONTRA AS MULHERES NA MÍDIA ESPORTIVA

ABSTRACT

The media not only inform but also educate, shaping social imaginaries that influence the construction of identities, aspirations, and role models, especially during childhood and adolescence. However, despite the increasing participation of women in sports at all levels, female athletes remain underrepresented in the print media. This article analyses the representation of women’s sport in two Spanish sport newspaper (Marca and Diario AS) during the first quarter of 2025, aiming to identify forms of exclusion and symbolic violence in media portrayals of female athletes. Using a mixed-methods approach, 60 front pages and 415 headlines were analysed. Women’s sport appeared in only 37% of the material reviewed, and headlines specifically referring to female athletes accounted for just 7%. Beyond their limited visibility, both textual and visual narratives reinforce gender stereotypes and forms of symbolic violence. The study highlights the need to incorporate media literacy with a feminist perspective into teacher education at all levels and school Physical Education in order to foster critical awareness of these discourses and promote a more equitable sports culture.

Keywords:
Women; Sport; Mass media; Newspapers; Symbolic violence; Exclusion.

RESUMO

Os meios de comunicação não apenas informam, mas também educam, moldando imaginários sociais que influenciam a construção de identidades, aspirações e referências, especialmente durante a infância e a adolescência. No entanto, apesar do aumento da participação das mulheres nas atividades esportivas em todos os níveis, as atletas continuam sendo sub-representadas na imprensa esportiva, especialmente na mídia impressa. O presente artigo analisa a representação do esporte feminino em dois jornais esportivos espanhóis (Marca e Diario AS) durante o primeiro trimestre de 2025, com o objetivo de identificar formas de exclusão e violência simbólica associadas ao tratamento midiático das atletas. Por meio de uma abordagem de métodos mistos, foram analisadas 60 capas e 415 manchetes. O esporte feminino apareceu em apenas 37% do material analisado, e as manchetes especificamente relacionadas às atletas representaram apenas 7%. Além da baixa visibilidade, as narrativas textuais e visuais reforçam estereótipos de gênero e formas de violência simbólica. O estudo destaca a necessidade de incorporar a alfabetização midiática com perspectiva feminista na formação docente em todos os níveis de ensino e na Educação Física escolar, a fim de desenvolver uma consciência crítica sobre esses discursos e promover uma cultura esportiva mais equitativa.

Palavras-chave:
Mulheres; Esporte; Mídia de massa; Jornais; Violência simbólica; Exclusão.

Introduction

The Paris 2024 Olympic Games marked a historic milestone by achieving gender parity in the participation of women and men across all disciplines in the Olympic programme¹. However, despite this progress, female athletes still do not receive the same media or social recognition for their achievements and successes. These are frequently overlooked or downplayed in specialist sports journalism². This inequality is not limited to situations in which men attain better results. In many cases, women’s victories and records are overshadowed, even when they surpass those of their male counterparts³.

The discriminatory treatment toward women is rooted in a historical tradition that has shaped sport as an androcentric space where, from a binary gender logic, men and certain forms of masculinity have been placed at the centre, while women and femininity have been marginalised⁴, and even ridiculed. As Bourdieu⁵ explains, this order is perpetuated through what he calls “symbolic violence,” a subtle yet effective form of domination that reinforces inequality under the guise of difference and legitimises arbitrary power hierarchies. In this context, the limited representation of women in sports media is not incidental. It is part of a system that privileges men’s sport, particularly football, and hinders the emergence of female role models while obstructing women’s visibility⁶,⁷. Desviyanti et al.³ and Gómez-Colell et al.⁸ have shown that the media reproduce sexist stereotypes from early stages, associating masculinity with athleticism and femininity with fragility, a finding also confirmed by Herrera et al.⁹. Many athletes have also pointed out how their careers and achievements are either ignored or only acknowledged under exceptional circumstances¹⁰. In this way, sports media function as instruments that reinforce male hegemony¹¹.

Among the main strategies used by the sports press to reproduce these inequalities are sexualisation, infantilisation and invisibilisation¹², which in turn represent distinct forms of violence⁹. Sexualisation, as a form of sexual violence, reinforces and sustains male power hierarchies by presenting women in a dehumanised manner and as objects of sexual pleasure for men¹³. Infantilisation portrays women as immature and unstable, reinforcing their depiction as individuals dependent on male authority¹⁴. Invisibilisation deliberately conceals their successes in order to restrict their social recognition, public prominence and capacity for influence⁹. These practices convey the idea that women may only participate insofar as such participation does not challenge existing power structures and requires them to assume a secondary or complementary role. Feminist scholarship has explored in depth how, in formally egalitarian societies, the logic of fraternity does not operate through coercive laws, particularly in neoliberal contexts, but rather through an imperceptible imposition disguised as individual consent¹⁵ (pp. 32-37). New mechanisms of control use various channels, including the media, to impose their framework. This shapes both the social imaginary and social reality, guiding individuals to think and develop beliefs in a specific direction¹⁶.

The front pages of sports newspapers, which are highly visible and symbolically charged spaces, may reflect editorial priorities that may reproduce gender inequalities, influence the public agenda and reinforce rigid gender norms within sport¹⁷. In this regard, the presence of women on the front pages of Spanish sports newspapers is limited and often secondary, while men’s football overwhelmingly dominates, revealing clear biases in attention and valuation⁸,⁹,¹⁴,¹⁸,¹⁹. These patterns are not unique to the Spanish context, as international studies have identified similar trends in other countries²⁰. This scarce and stereotyped representation of women contributes to a societal perception of female participation and sporting achievements as anecdotal and irrelevant¹⁷. This false perception is, to a large extent, the responsibility of the media, which deprives women and girls of relatable sporting role models and denies boys and men a complete and egalitarian view of sport²¹. These narratives therefore form part of a sexualised media policy that legitimises gender hierarchies and contributes to the rise in violence against women, reinforcing structural social misogyny and leading to the cultural impoverishment of society.

In the field of sport, biased media coverage -disseminated through print media, television, radio, as well as digital platforms and social media- influences the construction of role models from an early age, not only through the consumption of sports content but also through educational systems themselves. The educational consequences of these practices are clear: (i) a social imaginary that regards women’s sport as non-existent or insignificant, (ii) a lack of female role models across society, and (iii) the perpetuation of an androcentric model of sport that marginalises women. In this regard, Orfila y Moya-Mata²² found that pupils overwhelmingly recognise male athletes, are unaware of female sporting figures, and perceive traditionally feminised sports disciplines as “lesser”. This biased media perspective is also evident in curricular materials, particularly in Physical Education textbooks, which display a clear overrepresentation of men in sports imagery, both on the covers²³ and within the interior content²⁴. Far from being neutral resources, these media-disseminated materials reflect and reproduce gender roles and gender stereotypes, hindering pedagogical actions and reinforcing gender inequalities within school physical culture.

In light of this reality, it is essential that Physical Education teachers are trained as agents of change²⁵. To achieve this, media and information literacy must be incorporated into both initial teacher education and ongoing professional development, in order to identify and challenge sexist practices and to promote a more equitable sporting culture from the earliest stages of education. Including media literacy within the Physical Education curriculum would enable pupils to develop a more critical perspective on the messages they receive, recognising the mechanisms through which women athletes and women’s sport are excluded. In this sense, media education should not be limited to the technical use of communication and digital tools. It should also aim to cultivate ethical, critical thinking that is committed to democratic values²⁶. This critical dimension is particularly important for girls, not only to strengthen their sporting self-esteem, but also to help them recognise that there are female genealogies in sport, and to make them aware that they themselves are part of a collective history of effort, achievement, and resistance.

From this perspective, the present study sets out three main objectives: (i) to critically analyse how women athletes are represented in the Spanish sports press, (ii) to identify the forms of violence associated with their media portrayal, and (iii) to reflect on the educational implications of these media discourses within the educational context.

Methodology

A mixed-methods approach was used in the development of this study, combining elements of quantitative analysis with content analysis techniques in order to obtain multiple perspectives on the subject of investigation.

Sample

For the purposes of this study, the analysis focused on the representation of women’s sport on the front pages of Marca and Diario AS during the first ten days of January, February, and March 2025. The data collection period was selected through a non-probabilistic sampling strategy by the researchers, who sought to avoid the inclusion of mega-events which, due to their exceptional nature and extensive media impact, could have biased the results. Nevertheless, it was not possible to prevent the inclusion of coverage of the 2025 European Indoor Athletics Championships within the selected period of analysis.

The selection of Marca and Diario AS is based on three main criteria. First, they are the most widely read sports newspapers in Spain, with a daily average of four and three million page views respectively²⁷. Second, both newspapers are dedicated exclusively to sports content. Third, their print editions are available in PDF format, which facilitates access to and analysis of the material.

The choice of the front page as the unit of analysis is based on its informational and symbolic value. It functions as a showcase and reflects the thematic hierarchies established by the editorial line. Through front pages, decisions are made about what is considered newsworthy and what is relegated, thereby directly influencing public perception²⁸.

Procedure

To analyse the information collected, a descriptive record sheet was used for each front page, based on the model proposed by Mauro¹⁶. The sheet included the following analytical elements:

Format: Design of the front page, headlines (number and structure), spatial distribution of headlines on the page (central area and lateral, upper and/or lower margins), and images (composition).

Content: Inclusion of news about women’s sport and/or female athletes, type of content (sport-related or non-sport-related), editorial approach (informative or sensationalist), type of sports disciplines practised by women featured on the front pages, and the language used to describe female athletes.

Data processing and analysis

The data analysis was structured in two phases. In the first phase, a descriptive analysis was conducted to determine the frequency of content related to women’s sport and/or female athletes appearing on the front pages of both newspapers. This was carried out using quantitative and graphical methods. In the second phase, headlines and images were examined using qualitative content analysis, identifying the most recurring and significant themes were identified.

Results

A total of 60 front pages were selected and analysed. In 38 of them (63%), no headlines related to women’s sport and/or female athletes were recorded, while the remaining 22 front pages (37%) did include headlines related to this topic (Figure 1).

Figure 1
The two newspapers (Marca and AS) and the percentage of front pages analysed, divided between those with and without content related to women’s sport and/or female athletes.

From the analysis corpus, a total of 415 headlines were identified, of which 221 (53%) were published on Marca front pages and 194 (47%) on those of AS (Figure 2). Of this total, only 28 headlines (7%) referred to women’s sport and/or female athletes, compared to the remaining 387 headlines (93%). In the case of Marca, 94% of the 221 analysed headlines focused on men’s sport or male athletes. The proportion was similar in AS, where 93% of the 194 headlines did so. Both newspapers featured the same number of headlines about women’s sport and/or female athletes: 14 each (7%) (Figure 3). On several occasions, determining whether a headline referred to women’s sport required reading the article, as the headline itself concealed that information (e.g. "No eran invencibles" ["They were not invincible"], Diario AS, 2 February 2025). Female athletes were featured as the main image on the front page only twice across both newspapers, in both cases in relation to the gold medal won by Spanish athlete Ana Peleteiro at the European Indoor Championships.

Figure 2
Total number of headlines analysed (Marca and AS), divided between those appearing on the front pages of Marca and Diario AS.

Figure 3
Headlines analysed (Marca and AS), divided between those with and without content related to women’s sport or female athletes.

With regard to the use of images in news items about women’s sport, it was found that 68% (n=19) of the relevant headlines were accompanied by images, while 32% (n=9) were text-only. The use of visual support was more frequent in Marca, where 79% (n=11) of the headlines related to women’s sport and female athletes included images, compared to 57% (n=8) in Diario AS.

In relation to the composition of the images used in the headlines, the data show that it is common to use low-quality colour photographs, typically set in sporting contexts, featuring the athletes in sportswear and captured in close-up or medium shots. Although 58% of the images (n=8) depict women in sporting contexts, a significant number (32%, n=6) are set in non-sporting environments, such as newspaper editorial offices. In only one case (5%) was the context not identifiable. Additionally, in 16% of the images (n=3), female athletes shared the spotlight with male figures, a feature observed only on the front pages of Marca. Notably, 53% of the images (n=10) adopted an emotional focus, portraying the athletes in moments that emphasised joy, euphoria or tears (Table 1).

Table 1
Number of headlines about women’s sport or female athletes with and without accompanying images on the analysed sports front pages, including the composition of the images.

	Headline with photo (Total No. and %)		Headline without photo (Total No. and %)		Photo in which the female athlete shares the spotlight with men (Total No. and %)		Photo in a sporting context (Total No. and %)		Photo in a non-sporting context (Total No. and %)		Photo with an emotional approach (Total No. and %)		Photo in which context cannot be identified (Total No. and %)
AS	8	57%	6	43%	-	-	5	63%	2	25%	5	63%	-	-
Marca	11	79%	3	21%	3	27%	6	55%	4	36%	5	45%	1	9%
Total	19	68%	9	32%	3	16%	11	58%	6	32%	10	53%	1	5%

With regard to the themes of the headlines featuring female athletes and women’s sport (Table 2), it is evident that, overall, they are not given substantial editorial space. Of the total 28 headlines, 21% featured men as the central figures (e.g. "Premios Laureus - nueve candidaturas españolas: Alcaraz, Aitana, R. Madrid, Lamine..." ["Laureus Awards - nine Spanish nominations: Alcaraz, Aitana, Real Madrid, Lamine..."], Diario AS, 4 March 2025). In 36% (n=10) of the main headlines analysed, the names of the female athletes were not mentioned, as seen in examples such as: "San Silvestre: noche mágica para los récords" ["San Silvestre: a magical night for records"] (Marca, 2 January 2025) or "Otro salto de bandera" ["Another monumental jump"] (Marca, 8 March 2025). In some cases, such as the latter, the athlete’s name appeared in the subheading instead (e.g. "Ana Peleteiro, segundo oro europeo indoor" ["Ana Peleteiro wins second European Indoor gold"]). Additionally, 21% (n=6) of the analysed headlines referred to events outside the sporting context, such as coverage of the sexual assault case involving the former president of the Spanish Football Federation, Luis Rubiales (e.g. "Caso Rubiales - la Fiscalía pide que se repita el juicio al expresidente de la Federación" ["Rubiales case - prosecutor requests a retrial for former Federation president"], Marca, 7 March 2025) or "El hermano de Jenni Hermoso, ante el juez: 'Ella me dijo que el beso le había dado asco'" ["Jenni Hermoso’s brother appears before judge: ‘She told me the kiss made her feel sick’"], Diario AS, 6 February 2025).

Table 2
Total number and percentage of headlines about women’s sport and/or female athletes, distributed according to their characteristics.

	Headline without visibility of the athlete’s name (Total No. and %)		Headline featured o shared with men (Total No. and %)		Non-sporting headline (Total No. and %)		Headline with an informative approach (Total No. and %)		Headline with a sensationalist approach (Total No. and %)
AS	3	21%	4	29%	4	29%	5	36%	9	64%
MARCA	7	50%	2	14%	2	14%	6	43%	8	57%
Total	10	36%	6	21%	6	21%	11	39%	17	61%

In terms of editorial approach, a sensationalist perspective predominated in 61% (n=17) of the headlines, in which the media associated female athletes or women’s sport with values traditionally linked to femininity, such as stories of overcoming adversity, emotional drama, fantasy, family protection, infantilisation or motherhood. Some examples include: "Es de oro" ["She’s golden"] (Diario AS, 8 March 2025), "De la maternidad a la eternidad" ["From motherhood to eternity"] (AS, 8 March 2025), and "Jenni estaba muy agobiada" - Alexia, Paredes y Codina declaran en el cuarto día de audiencia ["Jenni was feeling very overwhelmed" - Alexia, Paredes and Codina testify on day four of the hearing] (Diario AS, 7 February 2025). Headlines with an informative approach appeared in 39% (n=11) of the cases, with examples such as: "Paula Sevilla, bronce en 400" ["Paula Sevilla wins bronze in 400m"] (Diario AS, 9 March 2025) or "Copa de la Reina. Semifinales" ["Queen’s Cup - semi-finals"] (Marca, 6 March 2025).

It is also worth noting a slight increase in the number of headlines featuring female athletes or women’s sports, primarily due to two factors. One was the International Women’s Day, which led to as many as four front-page headlines focused on women (Marca). In total, headlines related to 8 March accounted for 21% (n=6) of the sample analysed across both newspapers. The second factor behind this increase was the coverage of the European Indoor Athletics Championships, where Spanish athletes such as Paula Sevilla and Ana Peleteiro stood out.

Discussion

Women’s sport in the Spanish sports press: A portrait of violence against women

Based on the data analysed, it is clear that sports reporting remains oriented towards promoting narratives and values associated with men. This is reflected in the way women are represented on front pages, including their secondary placement in headlines, the limited number of stories centred on them, the absence of personal names in titles, and the use of images that focus on their emotional state. Previous studies have already highlighted the under-representation of female athletes in the media, pointing to factors such as their low frequency of appearance in newspapers, the type of language used to describe them, and the use of low-quality images that depict them in ways that reinforce normative femininity¹¹. A clear example of the stereotypical portrayal of sportswomen can be seen in the front pages published on March 8th, International Women’s Day, where female athletes are featured mainly in connection with athletics and swimming, sports traditionally considered suitable for women³.

In fact, March 8th is the day with the highest frequency of news on women’s sport, whereas their presence is very limited throughout the rest of the year. In this sense, it becomes evident that, despite progress in media coverage, inequality persists. This raises an important question: why does the sports press continue to resist providing equal coverage of women’s sport?

One reason that may help to better understand this reality lies in viewing the media sphere as a space of power in which different ideological discourses compete for dominance¹⁶. In this context, the failure to report on the achievements and sporting careers of women constitutes a use of the media to reinforce the notion that sport is not a space for them²⁹. This contributes to the preservation of hierarchical power structures that centre on male dominance and visibility⁶.

The analysis of front-page photographs is particularly significant due to their importance in the representation and visibility of the sporting world. In media coverage of sport, images often carry greater symbolic weight than text²⁹. In this regard, it is noteworthy that 32% (n=9) of the headlines related to women’s sport were not accompanied by images. While this may appear to be a minor issue, a closer examination reveals a more serious concern when considering images in which female athletes appear alongside men, or photographs linked to women’s sport but featuring male figures. In other words, in 7 out of 10 images associated with headlines on women’s sport, men are present. This situation illustrates how the newspapers analysed continue to marginalize and downplay the role of female athletes. The evocative power of images, particularly on front pages, does not appear to be a valued resource when it comes to women’s sport. This may be explained by several possible factors: (i) as secondary headlines, they are not allocated space for imagery; (ii) sports newspaper front pages prioritise images of men’s sport; and (iii) the media has reduced the sexualised portrayal of female athletes, which may limit the use of women’s images on front pages now that they no longer serve the function of attracting a male audience.

Continuing with the analysis, the images of female athletes examined in this study stand out for their pronounced emotional focus, which was present in 53% of cases. This type of representation is particularly common in the photographs selected for front pages when covering women’s sport. This pattern is consistent with the findings of Guerrero Salazar¹⁴, who points out that when female athletes are shown in close-up, the emphasis is placed on their emotional reactions, most often associated with vulnerability, sadness or overwhelming euphoria. It is important to reflect on the lack of emotional balance portrayed in these images. In some cases, the athletes appear dejected or anxious, while in others they are depicted as excessively joyful. This may be linked to gender stereotypes that persistently associate women with supposed emotional instability, a perception that is not applied to men, despite the fact that they are more frequently involved in episodes of anger, aggression, and physical violence, both in their roles as athletes and as spectators.

The sensationalist approach is another prominent element in the sample analysed. Headlines and images often reveal details of female athletes’ private lives, as well as dramatic moments and scenes of distress, in which the focus is placed on the woman’s anguished facial expression. Considering that the nature of a news item plays an important role in shaping public opinion, sensationalist headlines appeal to emotion and do not contribute to the critical development of audiences³⁰. In the case of the front pages analysed, no headlines were found that employed sexual connotations as a strategy to attract readers³¹, but the sensationalist framing was clearly present. One example is the coverage of the trial against Luis Rubiales for sexual assault. The case occupied a considerable portion of the headlines, structured in such a way that the focus remained on Rubiales, while the portrayal of Jennifer Hermoso tended to construct an image of the athlete associated with emotions linked to vulnerability. In this regard, it can be argued that sports media coverage adopted features characteristic of sexist discourse³², marked by a superficial tone, limited informative content, and a lack of the seriousness and sensitivity that the issue demanded.

The results of this study also reveal the exclusion of female athletes and women’s sport through the analysis of front pages. Of the 60 front pages examined, only two featured a woman as the main subject in the lead headline. These representations are not neutral; rather, they function as mechanisms of symbolic control that determine who is allowed to be part of the social imaginary in the sporting sphere and under what conditions. This raises another important question. If one of the functions of the media is to inform society about historical, sociocultural, political and sporting events⁸, why is the reality of female athletes and women’s sport not represented?

Given that both sport and the media are masculinised and androcentric spaces, women may be represented through three main approaches. The first is the exclusionary approach, in which female athletes, far from being regarded as equals, are relegated to irrelevance by men, rendered invisible or infantilised, and perceived as insignificant, irrelevant, or immature. Although no direct violence is exerted, symbolic violence is evident through the lack of recognition. The second perspective is the hostile approach. Highly successful female athletes are seen as a threat to male dominance¹². Media coverage that portrays female athletes as brave, strong, resilient, determined and relevant is interpreted, from a male-centred perspective, as a loss of power, particularly in a context as competitive as sport. As a result, women are featured in fewer photographs, which tend to be smaller and of lower quality, and are often accompanied by reductive or stereotypical narratives. The third is the accommodating approach, in which the presence of women in sporting spaces is accepted, but only in roles traditionally considered appropriate for them, that is, performing actions for the enjoyment of men. In this sense, they may appear as guests¹⁸ or as sexual objects¹³. While this latter strategy appears to be declining³³, it remains necessary to remain alert in order to detect whether it is taking new and subtler forms of violence.

Feminist media literacy: tools for resistance

In light of the findings of this study and previous research, it is argued that sports media outlets such as Marca and AS contribute to the cultural impoverishment of society, particularly for women and girls. The lack of regular and consistent coverage of female athletes and women’s sport in the media renders these outlets responsible for the limited public knowledge of sporting culture, in this case within Spanish society. Moreover, the discriminatory treatment that female athletes frequently receive conveys the image of the media as a system of power that weakens democracy by sustaining gender hierarchies and norms. As social actors with the capacity to influence, the media cannot avoid responsibility for these dynamics⁸,²¹. At present, the absence of real change in the media representation of women cannot be attributed to ignorance. In Spain, there are different laws³⁴,³⁵ that ensure an equal and non-discriminatory audiovisual communication of women and that do not favour, directly or indirectly, situations of discrimination. Therefore, the persistence of the media in maintaining a biased representation of women’s sport and female athletes seems to be more closely related to a deliberate approach that responds to interests and power structures, which calls for a critical and active stance from all citizens.

These biased representations not only contribute to the cultural impoverishment of society but also have a direct impact on identity formation and the life trajectories of girls and adolescents. The lack of recognition for women’s sport and female athletes affects young women’s self-esteem in multiple ways. On the one hand, they lack visible role models, especially in comparison to their male peers²². Moreover, they internalise the idea that sport is a male domain, which increases the likelihood that they will abandon participation in sport³⁶. Finally, they assume secondary roles within sport, identifying more as spectators, hostesses, companions or partners of athletes, commonly referred to as WAGs (wives and girlfriends), rather than as central figures in their own sporting journeys³⁷.

The majority-male Physical Education teaching staff also consume this type of media content. Teachers who are not trained in coeducational matters and display little critical awareness are likely to reproduce these biases in playgrounds and gymnasiums through the selection and prioritisation of certain content and the use of biased examples in the classroom³⁸. The same applies to sports coaches and technical staff who are trained outside the university system, often through programmes that are far from incorporating a gender perspective as a fundamental tool for analysing social reality. These professionals also contribute to the reproduction of sexist models that reinforce the androcentric framework in extracurricular settings such as sports schools and clubs.

This exclusionary perspective view of the sports press also permeates curricular materials, reproducing and legitimising the symbolic exclusion of women from the sporting sphere. The logic of invisibilisation is reflected in Physical Education textbooks in Spain, where the male body continues to be the hegemonic model of representation, while women appear in subordinate roles or are entirely absent. Specifically, the images reinforce sexist and exclusionary stereotypes. Young, white, non-disabled males are shown engaging in competitive and high-performance outdoor sports, while women are depicted in non-competitive activities, associated with bodily care and confined to indoor spaces²⁴,²³.

Finally, the supremacist approaches that sports media adopt towards men’s sport are also visible in playgrounds and during break times in spontaneous ways. The most skilled boys, particularly in football, tend to occupy the central and largest areas, relegating the rest of the pupils to the margins³⁹. This mainly affects girls, but also many boys and pupils with disabilities, who learn to position themselves on the periphery, while a small group of boys monopolises the space and the attention day after day. These dynamics, which clearly reflect the social inequalities that exist outside schools, are replicated within educational contexts, legitimising power relations that have a strong symbolic impact, as well as real consequences, for girls, adolescent girls and minorities.

Despite this, few subjects, such as Physical Education, have the potential to create spaces for reflection and action where pupils can acquire tools to understand and critically analyse media narratives related to women’s sport and its protagonists. Achieving this requires knowing how to select and interpret the messages produced by the media⁴⁰. This competency is particularly important for the empowerment of girls and adolescents. Learning about the history of women’s struggles and rights victories in the sporting world not only enables them to see themselves as active agents in the process but also strengthens their self-esteem by connecting them with the genealogy of women and with the history of their social group.

There are some experiences concerning the effect of educational interventions aimed at improving students’ knowledge of female athletes. These studies show that, after attending a dedicated workshop on female role models, both girls and boys improve their cultural awareness of women’s sport⁴¹. However, there is still a lack of research exploring the relationship between media and information literacy and the field of Sport Sciences²⁵, despite repeated recommendations that future studies should give greater attention to this area. This lack of focus contrasts with the significant role that sports information plays for audiences⁴², the growing influence of social media influencers on physical activity and sport⁴³, and the increase in student engagement in Physical Education classes when digital technologies are used to design learning activities⁴⁴. In the field of journalism⁴⁵, coined the term "media coeducation" as a necessary strategy for achieving equality in media content production. From our perspective, it is also essential to train pupils in feminist media literacy, which, in the long term, can enable them to develop a critical view of the misogynistic narratives found in sports journalism. This type of training helps to shape a reflective citizenry capable of selecting content that upholds the principle of equality between women and men, including within the field of sport.

Conclusions

The representation of women’s sport and female athletes on the front pages of Spain’s leading sports newspapers continues to be characterised by invisibility and the reinforcement of gender stereotypes. The lower valuation of women’s sport and female athletes is evident both in their limited presence and in the use of discursive and visual strategies that perpetuate their subordination to male dominance. Among the forms of violence associated with the media coverage of women’s sport, the lack of value attributed to female athletes stands out. This devaluation is evident both in their limited visibility and in the use of discursive and visual strategies that reinforce their subordination to male dominance in the sporting narrative.

Despite the progress of feminism in formally egalitarian societies, sports media still show clear resistance to equality. The presence of women on front pages remains exceptional and, in most cases, is linked to specific achievements such as winning medals or team titles. This reinforces the idea that their successes are the result of chance rather than the outcome of a professional career grounded in perseverance, effort and dedication.

The social impact of these sexist practices extends into the educational sphere, where both teachers and pupils internalise and reproduce inequality in sport through their formal (curricular) and informal (recreational) practices within the school environment. In this context, it is essential to promote feminist media literacy both in university-level teacher education and in Physical Education classes, as a key tool for the critical analysis of media discourses and for resisting the multiple forms of symbolic violence against women in sport.

Future studies could incorporate decolonial perspectives by exploring how international editions of sports newspapers, such as Marca in Mexico, reflect and reproduce gender norms in different cultural contexts. This would allow for a broader and more nuanced understanding of the symbolic impact of the media. Likewise, it would be valuable to analyse the constructions of masculinities in sport, examining how narratives about male athletes reinforce or challenge dominant gender norms. Such an approach would complement the feminist perspective and offer a more comprehensive view of gender roles in sports media.

• Funding:
  This work was funded through grants from the VII Own Research and Knowledge Transfer Plan of the University of Seville (Spain). (Ref. VII PP V.1A2)

Data Availability Statement:

The data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.

References

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Edited by

• Editor:
  Eliane Regina Crestani Tortola.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  24 Aug 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  09 Aug 2025
• Reviewed
  21 Oct 2025
• Accepted
  23 Oct 2025