Snakes |
Viperids |
Daboia russelli
|
Phospholipase A2 (VRV-PL-VIIIa) |
√ |
|
|
|
Alveolar cytotoxicity |
Humans |
[ 1414. Jeyarajah R. Russell’s viper bite in Sri Lanka. A study of 22 cases. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1984;33(3):506-10. , 1818. Gupta S, Tewari A, Nair V. Cerebellar infarct with neurogenic pulmonary edema following viper bite. J Neurosci Rural Pract. 2012;3(1):74-6. , 3333. Palangasinghe DR, Weerakkody RM, Dalpatadu CG, Gnanathasan CA. A fatal outcome due to pulmonary hemorrhage following Russell’s viper bite. Saudi Med J. 2015;36(5):634-7. , 6060. Rathnayaka RMMKN, Ranathunga P, Kularathna SAM. Pulmonary haemorrhage following Russell’s viper ( Daboia russelii) envenoming in Sri Lanka. Asia Pac J Med Toxicol. 2020;9:72-6. ] |
MMP |
√ |
|
|
|
Vascular damage |
|
|
Procoagulant (cerebellar infarction) |
|
√ |
|
|
Neurogenic pulmonary edema |
|
|
Nephrotoxins |
|
√ |
|
|
Renal failure |
|
|
Hypnale hypnale
|
Unknown hemorrhagic toxins |
√ |
|
|
|
Unknown |
Humans |
[1515. Joseph JK, Simpson ID, Menon NC, Jose MP, Kulkarni KJ, Raghavendra GB, Warrell DA. First authenticated cases of life-threatening envenoming by the hump-nosed pit viper ( Hypnale hypnale) in India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2007;101(1):85-90. , 6161. Srirangan A, Pushpakumara J, Wanigasuriya K. A life-threatening complication due to pulmonary haemorrhage following hump-nosed viper bite. BMC Pulm Med. 2020;20(1):35. ] |
Nephrotoxins |
|
√ |
|
|
Renal failure |
|
|
Crotalus spp. |
Whole venom (crotoxin, PLA2 crotamine) |
√ |
√ |
√ |
|
Inflammation, vascular damage |
Mice |
[1919. Oliveira J Neto, Silveira JAM, Serra DS, Viana DA, Borges-Nojosa DM, Sampaio CMS, Monteiro HSA, Cavalcante FSA, Evangelista JSAM. Pulmonary mechanic and lung histology induced by Crotalus durissus cascavella snake venom. Toxicon. 2017;137:144-9. , 3232. Nonaka PN, Amorim CF, Paneque Peres AC, E Silva CAM, Zamuner SR, Ribeiro W, Cogo JC, Vieira RP, Dolhnikoff M, Oliveira LVF. Pulmonary mechanic and lung histology injury induced by Crotalus durissus terrificus snake venom. Toxicon. 2008 Jun 1;51(7):1158-66. , 9898. Azevedo E, Figueiredo RG, Pinto RV, Ramos TdCF, Sampaio GP, Bulhosa Santos RP, Guerreiro MLS, Biondi I, Trindade SC. Evaluation of systemic inflammatory response and lung injury induced by Crotalus durissus cascavella venom. PLoS One. 2020;15(2):e0224584. ] |
Crotalus scutulatus
|
Unknown |
|
|
|
√ |
Procoagulant state |
Humans |
[8383. Bhagat R, Sharma K, Sarode R, Shen YM. Delayed massive pulmonary thromboembolic phenomenon following envenomation by Mojave rattlesnake ( Crotalus scutulatus). Thromb Haemost. 2010;104(1):186-8. ] |
Agkistrodon blomhoffii ussurensis
|
LAOO (ABU-LAO) |
√ |
√ |
|
|
|
Mice |
[7777. Wei XL, Wei JF, Li T, Qiao LY, Liu YL, Huang T, He SH. Purification, characterization and potent lung lesion activity of an L-amino acid oxidase from Agkistrodon blomhoffii ussurensis snake venom. Toxicon. 2007;50(8):1126-39. ] |
Bothrops spp. |
Jararhagin (P-III SVMP) |
√ |
|
|
|
Inflammation, vascular damage |
Humans, mice |
[5050. Escalante T, Núñez J, Moura da Silva AM, Rucavado A, Theakston RDG, Gutiérrez JM. Pulmonary hemorrhage induced by jararhagin, a metalloproteinase from Bothrops jararaca snake venom. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2003;193(1):17-28. , 1551. Rucavado A, Soto M, Escalante T, Loría GD, Arni R, Gutiérrez JM. Thrombocytopenia and platelet hypoaggregation induced by Bothrops asper snake venom. Toxins involved and their contribution to metalloproteinase-induced pulmonary hemorrhage. Thromb Haemost. 2005;94(1):123-31. , 5959. Benvenuti LA, França FOS, Barbaro KC, Nunes JR, Cardoso JLC. Pulmonary haemorrhage causing rapid death after Bothrops jararacussu snakebite: a case report. Toxicon. 2003;42(3):331-4., 105105. Petricevich VL, Teixeira CF, Tambourgi DV, Gutierrez JM. Increments in serum cytokine and nitric oxide levels in mice injected with Bothrops asper and Bothrops jararaca snake venoms. Toxicon. 2000;38(9):1253-66. , 106106. Zamuner SR, Gutierrez JM, Muscara MN, Teixeira SA, Teixeira CF. Bothrops asper and Bothrops jararaca snake venoms trigger microbicidal functions of peritoneal leukocytes in vivo. Toxicon. 2001;39(10):1505-13. , 108108. Lomonte B, Tarkowski A, Hanson LA. Host response to Bothrops asper snake venom. Analysis of edema formation, inflammatory cells, and cytokine release in a mouse model. Inflammation. 1993;17(2):93-105. ] |
BaP1 (P-I SVMP) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Aspertin (CTL) in Bothrops asper |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Jararacussin-1 (serine protease) in Bothrops jararacussu |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bothrops lanceolatus
|
MMP |
|
|
|
√ |
Procoagulant state |
Humans |
[6969. Estrade G, Garnier D, Bernasconi F, Donatien Y. Pulmonary embolism and disseminated intravascular coagulation after being bitten by a Bothrops lanceolatus snake. Apropos of a case . Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss. 1989;82(11):1903-5. , 8080. Thomas L, Tyburn B, Bucher B, Pecout F, Ketterle J, Rieux D, Smadja D, Garnier D, Plumelle Y. Prevention of thromboses in human patients with Bothrops lanceolatus envenoming in Martinique: failure of anticoagulants and efficacy of a monospecific antivenom. Research Group on Snake Bites in Martinique. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995 May;52(5):419-26. , 8181. Malbranque S, Piercecchi-Marti MD, Thomas L, Barbey C, Courcier D, Bucher B, Smadja DS, Warrell DA. Fatal diffuse thrombotic microangiopathy after a bite by the “Fer-de-Lance” pit viper ( Bothrops lanceolatus) of Martinique. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008 Jun;78(6):856-61. ] |
VEGF |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Vipera berus
|
Unknown |
|
√ |
|
|
Unknown |
Humans |
[154154. Karlson-Stiber C, Salmonson H, Persson H. A nationwide study of Vipera berus bites during one year-epidemiology and morbidity of 231 cases. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2006;44(1):25-30. ] |
Vipers in Morocco, Greece, and French west coast |
Unknown |
|
|
|
√ |
Procoagulant state |
Humans |
[ 8282. Bart G, Pineau S, Biron C, Connault J, Artifoni M. Bilateral pulmonary embolism following a viper envenomation in France: A case report and review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(19):e2798. , 8484. Chani M, L’Kassimi H, Abouzahir A, Nazi M, Mion G. [Three case-reports of viperin envenoming in Morocco]. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2008;27(4):330-4. , 8585. Makis A, Kattamis A, Grammeniatis V, Sihlimiri P, Kotsonis H, Iliadis A, Siamopoulou A, Chaliasos N. Pulmonary embolism after snake bite in a child with Diamond-Blackfan anemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2011;33(1):68-70. ] |
Bitis gabonica
|
Hemorrhagin |
|
√ |
|
|
Vascular damage |
Animals (monkey, dogs, rats, guinea pigs, rabbit) |
[5757. Marsh N, Gattullo D, Pagliaro P, Losano G. The Gaboon viper, Bitis gabonica: hemorrhagic, metabolic, cardiovascular and clinical effects of the venom. Life Sci. 1997;61(8):763-9. , 5858. Marsh NA, Whaler BC. The Gaboon viper ( Bitis gabonica): Its biology, venom components and toxinology. Toxicon. 1984;22(5):669-94. ] |
Nephrotoxins |
|
√ |
|
|
Renal failure |
Elapids |
Most elapids |
Neurotoxins |
|
√ |
|
|
Respiratory paralysis |
Humans |
[1616. Gnanathasan A, Rodrigo C. Pulmonary effects and complications of snakebites. Chest. 2014;146(5):1403-12. ] |
Naja sputatrix
|
Phospholipase A2
|
|
√ |
√ |
|
Inflammation (decreased fluid clearance) |
Rats |
[3131. Cher CDN, Armugam A, Lachumanan R, Coghlan M-W, Jeyaseelan K. Pulmonary inflammation and edema induced by phospholipase A2: global gene analysis and effects on aquaporins and Na+/K+-ATPase. J Biol Chem. 2003;278(33):31352-60. ] |
Pseudonaja textilis
|
Cardiotoxins |
|
√ |
|
|
Cardiotoxicity |
Humans |
[155155. Henderson A, Baldwin LN, May C. Fatal brown snake (Non cardiogenic pulmonary edema in a case of viperidine snake bite) envenomation despite the use of antivenom. Med J Aust. 1993;158(10):709-10. ] |
Bungarus spp. (krait) |
Neurotoxins, cardiotoxins |
|
√ |
|
|
Cardiotoxicity, autonomic dysfunction |
Humans |
[156156. Agarwal R, Singh AP, Aggarwal AN. Pulmonary oedema complicating snake bite due to Bungarus caeruleus. Singapore Med J. 2007;48(8):e227-30. , 157157. Pillai LV, Ambike D, Husainy S, Khaire A, Captain A, Kuch U. Severe Neurotoxic Envenoming and Cardiac Complications after the Bite of a ‘Sind Krait’ ( Bungarus cf. sindanus) in Maharashtra, India. Trop Med Health. 2012;40(3):103-8. ] |
Toads (genus Bufo)
|
|
|
√ |
√ |
|
|
Cardiodepressant (digitalis effect - inhibit Na+/K+ ATPase) |
Humans, dogs |
[1313. Ashok G, Ramkumar, Sakunthala SR, Rajasekaran D. An interesting case of cardiotoxicity due to bufotoxin (toad toxin). J Assoc Physicians India. 2011;59:737-8. , 158158. Barbosa CM, Medeiros MS, Riani Costa CCM, Camplesi AC, Sakate M. Toad poisoning in three dogs: case reports. J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis. 2009;15(4). doi: 10.1590/S1678-91992009000400016. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-9199200900...
] |
Insects |
Hymenoptera |
Phospholipase, Antigen-5, melittin |
√ |
√ |
|
|
Inflammation, increased vascular permeability (Anaphylaxis) |
Humans |
[110110. Ferreira Jr RS, Almeida RA, Barraviera SR, Barraviera B. Historical perspective and human consequences of Africanized bee stings in the Americas. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2012;15(2):97-108. , 131131. Kularatne K, Kannangare T, Jayasena A, Jayasekera A, Waduge R, Weerakoon K, Kularatne SAM. Fatal acute pulmonary oedema and acute renal failure following multiple wasp/hornet ( Vespa affinis) stings in Sri Lanka: two case reports. J Med Case Reports. 2014;8:188. - 134134. Mukhopadhyay A, Fong KY, Lim TK. Diffuse alveolar haemorrhage: A rare reaction to insect sting. Respirology. 2002;7(2):157-9. ] |
Blister beetle (genus Epicauta) |
Cantharidin |
√ |
√ |
|
|
Acantholysis |
Alpacas |
[4545. Simpson KM, Streeter RN, De Souza P, Genova SG, Morgan SE. Cantharidin toxicosis in 2 alpacas. Can Vet J. 2013;54(5):456-62. ] |
Spiders |
Loxosceles spp. |
Phospholipase D (Sphingomyelinase D) |
|
√ |
|
|
Inflammation, alveolar cytotoxicity |
Humans, mice |
[3939. Thompson AL. Laboratory testing in monitoring the effects of brown recluse spider bites. Lab Med. 2013;44(4):300-3. , 111111. Tambourgi DV, Petricevich VL, Magnoli FC, Assaf SL, Jancar S, Dias Da Silva W. Endotoxemic-like shock induced by Loxosceles spider venoms: pathological changes and putative cytokine mediators. Toxicon. 1998;36(2):391-403. ] |
Latrodectus spp. |
α-latrotoxin |
|
√ |
|
|
Catecholamine storm |
Humans |
[116116. Caruso MB, Lauria PSS, de Souza CMV, Casais ESLL, Zingali RB. Widow spiders in the New World: a review on Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805 (Theridiidae) and latrodectism in the Americas. J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis. 2021;27:e20210011. Epub 20211022. doi: 10.1590/1678-9199-JVATITD-2021-0011. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-JVATIT...
] |
Atrax spp. |
Atrachotoxin |
|
√ |
|
|
Catecholamine storm |
Humans |
[124124. Isbister GK, Warner G. Acute myocardial injury caused by Sydney funnel-web spider ( Atrax robustus) envenoming. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2003;31(6):672-4. , 125125. Isbister GK, Sellors KV, Beckmann U, Chiew AL, Downes MA, Berling I. Catecholamine-induced cardiomyopathy resulting from life-threatening funnel-web spider envenoming. Med J Aust. 2015;203(7):302-4. ] |
Scorpions |
|
Vasoactive peptides |
√ |
√ |
√ |
|
Inflammation |
Humans, rats |
[99. Isbister GK, Bawaskar HS. Scorpion envenomation. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(5):457-63. , 8787. Deshpande SB, Akella A. Non-cardiogenic mechanisms for the pulmonary edema induced by scorpion venom. Int J Cardiol. 2012;157(3):426-7. , 8888. Deshpande SB, Alex AB, Jagannadham MV, Rao GR, Tiwari AK. Identification of a novel pulmonary oedema-producing toxin from Indian red scorpion ( Mesobuthus tamulus) venom. Toxicon. 2005;45(6):735-43. , 9696. Petricevich VL. Cytokine and nitric oxide production following severe envenomation. Curr Drug Targets Inflamm Allergy. 2004;3(3):325-32. , 102102. Fukuhara YD, Reis ML, Dellalibera-Joviliano R, Cunha FQ, Donadi EA. Increased plasma levels of IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and TNF-alpha in patients moderately or severely envenomed by Tityus serrulatus scorpion sting. Toxicon. 2003;41(1):49-55. ] |
|
PoTx (Mesobuthus tumulus) |
|
|
|
|
Catecholamine storm |
|
|
|
Neurotoxin (ex. α-toxin) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Centipede (Scolopendra spp.)
|
|
Toxin S |
|
|
|
|
Cardiotoxicity |
Humans, animals |
[126126. Kartik M, Haranath SP, Amte R, Gopal P. Shock and pain: Centipede bite causing reversible myocardial injury. Chest. 2012;142(4):321A. ] |
|
Vasoactive peptide |
|
|
|
|
Increased vascular permeability |
Jellyfish |
Nemopilema nomurai
|
Unspecified |
|
√ |
|
|
Cytotoxicity (pore forming) |
Humans, animals |
[4444. Kim JH, Han SB, Durey A. Fatal pulmonary edema in a child after jellyfish stings in Korea. Wilderness Environ Med. 2018;29(4):527-30. ] |
Chiropsalmus quadrumanus and C.quadrigatus |
Unspecified |
|
√ |
|
|
Cardiotoxicity |
Humans |
[159159. Bengtson K, Nichols MM, Schnadig V, Ellis MD. Sudden death in a child following jellyfish envenomation by Chiropsalmus quadrumanus. Case report and autopsy findings. JAMA. 1991;266(10):1404-6. , 163163. Nagai H, Takuwa-Kuroda K, Nakao M, Oshiro N, Iwanaga S, Nakajima T. A novel protein toxin from the deadly box jellyfish (Sea Wasp, Habu-kurage) Chiropsalmus quadrigatus. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2002;66(1):97-102. ] |
Chironex fleckeri
|
Unspecified |
|
√ |
|
|
Cardiotoxicity |
Humans |
[164164. Tibballs J. Australian venomous jellyfish, envenomation syndromes, toxins and therapy. Toxicon. 2006;48(7):830-59. ] |
Irukandji jellyfish (ex. Carukia spp.) |
Unspecified |
|
√ |
|
|
Irukandji syndrome |
Humans |
[117117. Nickson CP, Waugh EB, Jacups SP, Currie BJ. Irukandji syndrome case series from Australia’s tropical northern territory. Ann Emerg Med. 2009;54(3):395-403. ] |
Stonefish (family Synaceia) |
|
Unspecified |
√ |
√ |
√ |
|
Inflammation Alveolar cytotoxicity |
Humans, animals |
[4141. Maillaud C, Hoang-Oppermann T, Hoang-Oppermann V, Rigot H, Girardot S, Nour M. Is stonefish Synanceia verrucosa envenomation potentially lethal? Toxicon. 2020;184:78-82. ] |
Sea anemone |
Actinia equina
|
Equinatoxin II |
|
√ |
|
|
Increased vascular permeability |
Animals |
[165165. Wang ZL, Zhang SY, Hao SL, Yang WX. Neurotoxins and pore forming toxins in sea anemones: Potential candidates for new drug development. Histol Histopathol. 2022:18500.] |