Mazza (2010)2020. Mazzà C, Zok M, Cappozzo A. Head stabilization in children of both genders during level walking. Gait Posture. 2010; 31:429-432. Cross-sectional study |
N= 30 15 = healthy female group (mean age: 9±1 yrs) 15 = healthy male group (mean age: 9±1 yrs) |
Three units of tri-axial accelerometer, triaxial gyroscope, and magnetometers Freq: 100 Hz Sacrum, C7 intervertebral space and head |
No comparison performed |
Anteroposterior (AP) acceleration Mediolateral (ML) acceleration Vertical (V) acceleration Stride frequency Walking Speed |
No differences were found between two groups in pelvis and shoulder acceleration RMS values. Conversely, lower head acceleration RMS values were found for females in both AP and ML directions. Both groups managed to attenuate upper body AP and ML accelerations going from pelvis-to-head level, with higher attenuations found for females. |
Antunes (2016)2323. Antunes FN, Pinho AS, Kleiner AFR, Salazar AP, Eltz GD, de Oliveira Junior AA, Cechettim et al. Different horse's paces during hippotherapy on spatiotemporal parameters of gait in children with bilateral spastic cerebral palsy: A feasibility study. Res Dev Disabil. 2016; 59:65-72. Crossover Trial |
N= 20 10 bilateral spastic cerebral palsy (age: 10.1±3.7 yrs) 10 healthy children (age: 10.3 ± 4.36 yrs) |
One unit of tri-axial accelerometer, triaxial gyroscope, and magnetometers Freq: 100 Hz L5 intervertebral space |
No comparison performed |
Gait velocity [cm/s] Cadence [steps/min] Swing duration [% of gait cycle] Rolling phase [% of gait cycle] Double support duration [% of gait cycle] |
Differences were found in both groups for all spatiotemporal variables, except for gait velocity. The percentage of the rolling phase and double support improved after the walk-trot task. |
Schulleri (2016)2121. Schulleri KH, Burfeind F, Höß-Zenker B, Szabó ÉF, Herzig N, Ledebt A, et al. Deliberately light interpersonal contact affects the control of head stability during walking in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2017; 98: 1828-1835. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2017.01.026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2017.01.0...
Quasi-experimental clinical trial |
n = 65 26 children and adolescents with spastic or ataxic cerebral palsy (age: 9.8 ±4.5 yrs) 39 with typical development (age: 10.0 ±4.4 yrs) |
Four units of a tri-axial accelerometer Freq: 60 Hz Both lower legs laterally, sternum and forehead |
No comparison performed |
Gait speed Average step length Head and trunk velocity sway |
Deliberately light interpersonal contact applied to the apex of the head during walking results in the reduction of head velocity sway, reducing patterns of spastic or ataxic movements of the head. |
Suarez (2016)2222. Suarez H, Alonso R, Arocena S, Ferreira E, San Roman C, Suarez A, et al. Sensory-motor interaction in deaf children. Relationship between gait performance and hearing input during childhood assessed in prelingual cochlear implant users. Acta Otolaryngol. 2016; 15:1-6. Controlled clinical trial |
n = 24 (10-16 years old) 10 children using prelingual cochlear implants 14 children with normal hearing |
Three units of tri-axial accelerometers and gyroscopes Freq: 256 Hz Sacrum and on metatarsal of each foot |
No comparison performed |
Gait velocity |
Acoustic information generates slower gait in those implanted after 3 years of age. Gait velocity was lower during a dual task in children with normal hearing than with children using prelingual cochlear implants. |
Bisi (2017)1717. Bisi MC, Pasini PG, Polman R, Stagni R. Objective assessment of movement competence in children using wearable sensors: An instrumented version of the TGMD-2 locomotor subtest. Gait Posture. 2017;56:42-48. doi: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.04.025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017....
Cross-sectional stud |
n = 45 Children with typical development aged 6-10 yrs; 3 groups of 15 children each divided by age: 6YC = 6-year-old children 8YC = 8-year-old children 10YC = 10-year-old children |
One unit of tri-axial accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometers Freq: 128 Hz Lower back, ankles (above lateral malleolus) and wrists |
Standard assessment based on video-recordings by expert operators |
(AP) acceleration Mediolateral (ML) acceleration Vertical (V) acceleration Angular velocity on AP axis (ωAP) Angular velocity on ML axis (ωML) |
Automatic assessment based on wearable IMUs compared to standard assessment showed agreement higher than 87% on average in the entire group for each skill and reduction in time for scoring from 15 to 2 minutes per participant. |
Ganea. (2012)2424. Ganea R, Jeannet PY, Paraschiv-Ionescu A, Goemans NM, Piot C, Van den Hauwe, et al. Gait assessment in children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy during long-distance walking. J. Child Neurol. 2012; 27(1): 30-38. Cross-sectional study |
n = 45 Enrolled in two groups: 25 ambulatory boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy aged 5 to 12 years (8.04 ± 1.9) 20 age-matched (7.85 ± 2.48) healthy children (12 boys and 8 girls) |
One unit of uniaxial gyroscope and tri-axial accelerometer Freq: 40 Hz Shanks |
No comparison performed |
Stride length (SL) Shank peak angular velocity (SPAV) Stride velocity (SV) Cadence (Cad) Double support (DS) |
Compared with healthy children, patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy had significantly lower stride velocity and less smooth trunk movement. When a group of patients was divided into mild and moderate based on Motor Function Measure, authors noticed significantly higher values both for cadence and stride velocity as well as improved trunk smoothness in mild versus moderate group. Potential of such variables to distinguish between different disease states opens new perspectives for objective assessments of effectiveness of new therapies for Duchenne muscular dystrophy |
Summa (2016)2525. Summa A, Vannozzi G, Bergamini E, Iosa M, Morelli D, Cappozzo A. Multilevel upper body movement control during gait in children with cerebral palsy. PLoS One. 2016;11(3): e0151792. Cross-sectional study |
n= 40 20 children with cerebral palsy (Age 5.70 ± 2.27 years, range 2-9 years) 20 children with Typically developing (Age 5.85 ± 2.18 years, range 2-9 years) |
Three units of tri-axial accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometers Freq: 128 Hz Head level (occipital cranium bone), sternum level and on pelvis (sacrum-L5 level) |
No comparison performed |
Anteroposterior (AP) acceleration Mediolateral (ML) acceleration Vertical (V) acceleration Step length Step frequency Walking speed |
Despite a significant reduction in acceleration from the pelvis to the sternum, children with cerebral palsy do not compensate for large accelerations, which are greater than in children with typical development. The children with cerebral palsy had negative sternum-to-head attenuations in agreement with documented rigidity of the head-trunk system observed in this population. |
Chen (2017)2626. Chen X, Liao S, Cao S, Wu D, Zhang X. An Acceleration-Based Gait Assessment Method for Children with Cerebral Palsy. Sensors.2017; 17(5): 1002. Cross-sectional study |
n= 46 14 Healthy adults (24.2 ± 1.55 years) 10 Healthy children (7.03 ± 1.49 years) 22 Children with cerebral palsy (7.51 ± 2.96 years) |
Three units of tri-axial accelerometers and gyroscopes Freq: 100 Hz Lower back (L2-L3) and on the middle of right and left thigh (semitendinosus) |
No comparison performed |
Anteroposterior (AP) acceleration Mediolateral (ML)acceleration Vertical (V) acceleration Angular velocity on AP, ML and V axes |
Compared with healthy subjects, symptoms and severity of motor dysfunction in cerebral palsy children could result in abnormality of gait acceleration modes, and the proposed assessment method was able to effectively evaluate the degree of gait abnormality in children with cerebral palsy. |
Zollinger (2016) Cross-sectional study |
n = 20 10 unilateral cerebral palsy (14.2 ±1.7 years) 10 typically developing (14.1 ± 1.9 years) |
Two units of tri-axial accelerometers and gyroscopes Freq: 100 Hz Lower part of back, (L3 vertebra region) and on instep of foot of subject |
No other comparison performed |
Mass center acceleration Three dimensional accelerations of foot |
Evaluation of inertial sensor gait pattern revealed that treadmill training induced mechanical changes almost identical to overground walking in both groups. with exception of potential and kinetic vertical and lateral mechanical works, which are both significantly increased in overground - treadmill transition only in unilateral cerebral palsy. |
Christensen (2017)2727. Christensen C, Haddad A, Maus E. The validation of an accelerometer used to measure step count in children with idiopathic toe walking. Pediatr Phys Ther. 2017;29(2):153-157. doi: 10.1097/PEP.0000000000000364. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.000000000000...
Cross-sectional study |
n = 75 Children with diagnosis of idiopathic toe walking aged 3-13 years; divided into two groups by age: 2-to-5-y-olds = 456-to-13-y-olds = 30 |
One unit of uni-axial accelerometer Freq: Not reported Waist |
Video observation |
Step counts |
Significant difference in accelerometer scores and test pitch for children 2 to 5 years old; no significant difference found among 6-to-13-year-olds. |
Lanovaz (2017)1111. Lanovaz JL, Oates AR, Treen TT, Unger J. Musselman, K.E. Validation of a commercial inertial sensor system for spatiotemporal gait measurements in children. Gait Posture. 2017; 51: 14-19. Cross-sectional study |
n = 10 Typically developing children (mean age: 5.1 years, range: 3.0 to 8.3 years) |
Six units of tri-axial accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers Freq: 128 Hz Dorsal side of both wrists, sternum close to clavicular notch, lower back (L4/L5) and on the front side of shins close to malleoli |
3D motion capture system |
Stride time Stance time Stride length Stride velocity Walking velocity |
All spatiotemporal variables evaluated showed good agreement between the two systems. |
Pendharkar (2012)2828. Pendharkar G, Percival P, Morgan D, Lai D. Automated method to distinguish toe walking strides from normal strides in the gait of idiopathic toe walking children from heel accelerometry data. Gait Posture. 2012; 35(3):478-82. Cross-sectional study |
n = 20 (mean age: 8 years; mean weight: 25 kg) 10 healthy children. 10 children with idiopathic toe walking |
One unit of dual-axis accelerometer Freq: Not reported Heel of boot |
No comparison performed |
Stance phase Swing phase Number of strides Walking speed Vertical acceleration Horizontal acceleration Gravitational acceleration |
Foot angle during mid-stance ranged from 36º to 11.5º in children with idiopathic toe walking, but foot stance angle was approximately zero in normal children. |
Saether (2014)2929. Saether R, Helbostad JL, Adde L, Brændvik S, Lydersen S, Vik T. Gait characteristics in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy assessed with a trunk-worn accelerometer. Res Dev Disabil. 2014; 35: 1773-81. Cross-sectional study |
n = 70 41 spastic cerebral palsy (11.7 ± 3.8 years) 29 typically developing children (10.3 ± 3.6 years) |
One unit of tri-axial accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer Freq: 100 Hz Lower back (over L3 region) |
No comparison performed |
Trunk acceleration (Anteroposterior (AP), Vertical (V) and Mediolateral (ML) Gait speed Cadence Step time Step length |
Gait variables related to balance (AP, ML, and V accelerations) were higher in children with CP and increased with an increase in GMFCS level. Differences in acceleration in AP and V directions increased between children with CP and TD children with increase in speed. Asymmetry in trunk acceleration differed significantly between two groups in all three directions (z-scores between 0.8 and 1.8 higher in CP group), while inter-stride regularity differed only slightly between children with CP and TD children and only in AP direction. Gait characteristics also differed between children with unilateral and bilateral spastic subtypes of CP for acceleration and asymmetry in AP and ML directions. |
Sivarajah (2017)1313. Sivarajah L, Kane KJ, Lanovaz J, Bisaro D, Oates A, Ye M, et al. The Feasibility and Validity of Body-Worn Sensors to Supplement Timed Walking Tests for Children with Neurological Conditions. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr.2017; 38(3):280-290. Cross-sectional study |
n = 30 15 children with spina bifida or cerebral palsy (mean age: 7.9 ± 3.1 years, 8 males) 15 typically developing children (mean age: 8.2 ± 3.2 years, 8 males) |
Six units of tri-axial accelerometer, gyroscopes and magnetometers Freq: Not reported One sensor on each ankle and wrist, one on lower back and one on upper chest |
No comparison performed |
Stride length ROM of trunk on horizontal, sagittal, and frontal planes (degrees) Peak angular velocity of trunk on sagittal plane Peak velocity of trunk on horizontal, sagittal and frontal planes (degrees/second) Cadence (steps/min) Double support (percentage of gait cycle) Swing and stance asymmetry Number of steps |
On 10-Meter Walk Test, group differences were found in horizontal and frontal trunk range of motion, horizontal trunk velocity and swing asymmetry. Children with spina bifida or cerebral palsy took significantly longer to turn during Timed Up and Go Test. These five variables together distinguished the groups. |
Taborri (2015)3030. Taborri J, Scalona E, Palermo E, Rossi S, Cappa P. Validation of Inter-Subject Training for Hidden Markov Models Applied to Gait Phase Detection in Children with Cerebral Palsy. Sensors. 2015; 15: 24514-24529. Cross-sectional study |
n = 20 10 children with hemiplegia (7.8 ± 2.8 years) 10 children with typical development (9.5 ± 2.0 years) |
Two units of uni-axial gyroscopes Freq: 50 Hz Foot and shin of the dominant leg for typically developing children and on the more affected leg for hemiplegic children |
No comparison performed |
Angular velocities on sagittal plane of shin and foot |
Adequacy of classifiers was evaluated using receiver operating characteristics. Good to optimum results for all classifiers examined, with the best performance for the distributed classifier in two-phase recognition. Differences were found between gait partitioning models, while no differences were found between training procedures with the exception of shin classifier. |