Radical humanism and management: the implications of humanism for business administration and studies

Aktouf, Omar; Holford, David

doi:10.1590/S1984-92302008000200001

Abstract

The dialectical nature of the current socio-economic process at work, namely, the endless pursuit of maximization of profits leading towards a truncated understanding of Man, which in turn leads towards the further quest for maximization of profits, and so on, appears to pose an endless impasse. Breaking this negative dialectic involves: 1) having managerial studies develop and adopt an understanding and theory of Man that embraces a "radical humanism"; and 2) adopting a conception of corporate governance that aims to serve Mankind in lieu of exploiting it. The radical humanism referred to in this paper considers the human being as a being of speech, of symbols, of senses, of society, of free-will, and not just simply as a resource at the service of the company and of maximization of profit. Embracing a radical humanism, as well as a governance that aims to serve Man rather than exploit him introduces a virtuous dialectic: the adoption of a fuller understanding and respect for Man and Nature leads to the production and subsequent sharing of profits, which in turn reinforces the respect and understanding of Man and Nature, leading to further profits (and subsequent sharing), and so on. Adopting a humanistic approach within business activities and interactions is of the utmost priority if society, and by extension, we as human beings both in the individual and collective sense, are to survive, flourish and emancipate ourselves. At first glance, mainstream management literature would appear to be showing encouraging ‘signs' of enlightenment across the myriad of leitmotivs that are discerned across such words as "humanism", "ethics", "corporate governance", "social responsibility for business", and "environmental responsibility". In fact, if there is a major point of convergence for the many streams of literature, it is the importance of the human person or personal attitudes and behaviors at work. No matter the trend or topic: whether it is about corporate ‘culturalism' (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Ouchi, 1981; Peters & Waterman, 1982; Schein 1985 and 1991) or motivation and the valorization of human resources (Peters and Austin, 1985; Waterman, 1987; Crozier, 1989; Archier and Serieyx, 1987); whether it is across total quality, the re-introduction of the meaning of work, ‘empowerment' (Juran and Gryna, 1980; Michel, 1989; Serieyx, 1989; Peters and Austin, 1985; Mintzberg, 1989) or the realization of the workplace as an area of social interactions and sharing (Peters and Austin, 1985; Weitzman, 1984; Peters, 1987; DePree, 1989); or whether it is the various pre-occupations on ethics, ethico-spirituality or other management methods aiming towards cohesion, participation, initiative and creativity at all levels, what stands out most clearly is the insistent call from all quarters on putting the human element at the forefront. Yet let us not fool ourselves into thinking that these various streams reflect any significant attempt at creating business frameworks or management practices that embrace man's emancipation as a finality onto itself, or "man as being the measure of all things"

ARTIGOS

Radical humanism and management: the implications of humanism for business administration and studies

Omar Aktouf^I; David Holford^II

^IHEC Montreal

^IIHEC Montreal

ABSTRACT

The dialectical nature of the current socio-economic process at work, namely, the endless pursuit of maximization of profits leading towards a truncated understanding of Man, which in turn leads towards the further quest for maximization of profits, and so on, appears to pose an endless impasse. Breaking this negative dialectic involves: 1) having managerial studies develop and adopt an understanding and theory of Man that embraces a "radical humanism"; and 2) adopting a conception of corporate governance that aims to serve Mankind in lieu of exploiting it. The radical humanism referred to in this paper considers the human being as a being of speech, of symbols, of senses, of society, of free-will, and not just simply as a resource at the service of the company and of maximization of profit. Embracing a radical humanism, as well as a governance that aims to serve Man rather than exploit him introduces a virtuous dialectic: the adoption of a fuller understanding and respect for Man and Nature leads to the production and subsequent sharing of profits, which in turn reinforces the respect and understanding of Man and Nature, leading to further profits (and subsequent sharing), and so on. Adopting a humanistic approach within business activities and interactions is of the utmost priority if society, and by extension, we as human beings both in the individual and collective sense, are to survive, flourish and emancipate ourselves. At first glance, mainstream management literature would appear to be showing encouraging ‘signs' of enlightenment across the myriad of leitmotivs that are discerned across such words as "humanism", "ethics", "corporate governance", "social responsibility for business", and "environmental responsibility". In fact, if there is a major point of convergence for the many streams of literature, it is the importance of the human person or personal attitudes and behaviors at work. No matter the trend or topic: whether it is about corporate ‘culturalism' (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Ouchi, 1981; Peters & Waterman, 1982; Schein 1985 and 1991) or motivation and the valorization of human resources (Peters and Austin, 1985; Waterman, 1987; Crozier, 1989; Archier and Serieyx, 1987); whether it is across total quality, the re-introduction of the meaning of work, ‘empowerment' (Juran and Gryna, 1980; Michel, 1989; Serieyx, 1989; Peters and Austin, 1985; Mintzberg, 1989) or the realization of the workplace as an area of social interactions and sharing (Peters and Austin, 1985; Weitzman, 1984; Peters, 1987; DePree, 1989); or whether it is the various pre-occupations on ethics, ethico-spirituality or other management methods aiming towards cohesion, participation, initiative and creativity at all levels, what stands out most clearly is the insistent call from all quarters on putting the human element at the forefront. Yet let us not fool ourselves into thinking that these various streams reflect any significant attempt at creating business frameworks or management practices that embrace man's emancipation as a finality onto itself, or "man as being the measure of all things".

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References

ARCHIER, G.; SERIEYX, H. The type 3 company. Hampshire, UK: Gower Publishing Limited, 1987.

ATLAN, H. Du bruit comme principe d'auto-organisation. Communications, vol. 18, 1972: 21-37.

ATLAN, H. Ordre et désordre dans les systèmes naturels, in A. Chanlat & M. Dufour, eds., La rupture entre l'entreprise et les hommes. Paris: Editions d'Organisation, 1985: 119-137.

BAECHLER, J. Le capitalisme - Tome 1: Les origines. Paris: Gallimard, 1995.

BESANÇON, A. L'histoire psychanalytique. Une anthologie. Paris: Mouton Ed., 1974. BEYNON, H. Working for Ford. London: Penguin Books, 1973. BRAVERMAN, H. Labor and monopoly capital. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974.

CAILLÉ, A. Critique de la raison utilitaire, manifeste du MAUSS. Paris: La Découverte, 1989.

CHANLAT, A.; BÉDARD, R. La gestion, une affaire de parole, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed., L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Québec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 79-99

CHANLAT, A.; DUFOUR, M. La rupture entre l'entreprise et les hommes. Montreal: Quebec-Amérique, 1985.

CHANLAT, J.-F. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées, Québec: Presses de l'Universite Laval, 1990.

CHOSSUDOVSKY, M. The globalization of poverty. 2^nd edition, Oro, ON, Canada: Global Outlook, 2003.

CLEGG, S. R. Power, myth and domination. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975.

CLEGG, S. R. Pouvoir symbolique, langage et organisation, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed., L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de 1'Universite Laval, 1990: 663-681.

CROZIER, M. L'entreprise a l'écoute. Paris: InterEditions, 1989.

DAMASIO, A. Descarte's error: emotion, reason and the human brain. New York: Avon, 1995.

DEAL, T. E.; KENNEDY, A. Corporate culture: the rites and rituals of corporate life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1982. DEJOURS, C. Le travail, usure mentale. Paris: Le Centurion, 1980.

DEJOURS, C. Nouveau regard sur 1a souffrance humaine dans les organizations, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 687-708.

DEJOURS, C. Souffrance en France. Paris : Editions du Seuil, 1998. DEPREE, M. Leadership is an art. New York: Doubleday, 1989. DEVEUREUX, G. Essais d'ethno-psychiatrie générale. Paris : Gallimard, 1973.

ERIKSON, E. Childhood and society. New York: WW Norton, 1993. ETCHEGOYEN, A. Les entreprises ont-e1les une âme? Paris: Francois Bourrin, 1990.

ETZIONI, A. The moral dimension: toward a new economics. New York: Free Press, 1989.

EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. Social anthropology. London: Cohen & West, 1950.

FROMM, E. Marx's concept of man. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1961.

GALBRAITH, J.K. Economics in perspective. A critical history. Boston: Hougton Miflin, 1987.

GASPARINI, G. Temps et travail en occident, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 199-214

GIRIN, J. Langage en actes et organisations, in Économie et Societé, The ISMEA Proceedings on Management Sciences, vol. 3, Iss. 16, 1982: 1559-1591.

GIRIN, J. Problèmes de langage dans les organisations, in J.F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 37-78.

GODELIER, M. Rationality and irrationality in economics. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974.

HASSARD, J. Time, work and organization. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1988.

HASSARD, J. Pour un paradigme ethnographique du temps de travail, in J.F. CHANLAT, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec:Presses de l'Universite Laval, 1990: 215-230.

HERZBERG, F. Humanities: practical management education, Industry Week, vol. 206, Iss.7, 1980: 69-72.

HIRSCHMAN, A.O. The passions and the interests. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.

KAMDEM, E. Temps et travail en Afrique, in J.F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 231-255.

KETS DE VRIES, M.; MILLER, D. The neurotic organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,

KOLAKOWSKI, L. Histoire du marxisme. (vol. 1). Paris: Fayard, 1987.

LAPLANTINE, F. Ethnopsychiatrie générale. Paris: Psychothèque, 1973. LEVY, J-P. La fabrique de l'Homme. Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob, 1997.

MARCUSE, H. One dimensional man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society. New York: Beacon Press, 1964. M

ASLOW, A. Motivation and personality. New York: Harper, 1954.

MASLOW, A. Toward humanistic biology. American Psychologist, vol. 24, 1969: 724-735.

MATURANA, H. Tree of Knowledge. Boston: Shambhala, 1992.

MICHEL, S. Peut-on gérer les motivations? Paris: PUF, 1989.

MINTZBERG, H. Inside our strange world of organisations. New York: Free Press, 1989.

MITROFF, I. I.; Pauchant, T. We're so big and powerful nothing bad can happen to us. New York: Birch Lane Press, 1990.

MONTHOUX, P. The moral philosophy of management. Unpublished manuscript, Stockholm University, 1989.

MORGAN, G. Images of organizations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986. MORIN, E. Terre-patrie. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1993. OLIVE, D. Just rewards: the case of ethical reform in business. Toronto: Key Porter Books, 1987.

ORGOGOZO, I.; SERIEYX, H. Changer le changement. Paris: Seuil, 1989.

OUCHI, W. G. Theory Z: how American business can meet the Japanese challenge. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1981.

PACKARD, V. The ultra rich: How much is too much? London: Little, Brown, 1989.

PAGÈS, M., BONETTI, V.; GAULEJAC, V. de. L'emprise de l'organisation. 3rd ed. Paris: PUF, 1984.

PERROW, C. Organizational theory in a society of organizations. Paper presented at the symposium: L'administration publique: Perspectives d'avenir Public, Quebec, 1979.

PETERS, T.; WATERMAN, R. In search of excellence. New York: Harper & Row, 1982. PETERS, T. Thriving on chaos. San Francisco: Knopf, 1987.

PETERS, T.; N. Austin. A passion of excellence. New York: Ramdom House, 1985.

PFEFFER, R. Working for capitalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.

RIFKIN, J. The entropy law: a new world view. New York: Bantam Books, 1980.

ROSALDO, R. Subjectivity in social analysis, Chap. 8, from Culture and truth. The remaking of social analysis, Boston: Beacon Press, 1989: 168-195.

SAINSAULIEU, R. La regulation culturelle des ensembles organismes. L'Année sociologique, vol. 33, 1983: 195-217.

SAINSAULIEU, R. Développement social et création institutionnelle en entreprise, Desjeux, D., ed. Organisation et management en question(s). Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987: 203-221.

SARTRE, J.-P. Existenlialism and humanism. London: Methuen, 1948. SARTRE, J.-P. Being and nothingness. New York: Washington Square Press, 1966.

SARTRE, J.-P. Critique of dialectical reason (vol. 1). London: New Left Books, 1976.

SCHEIN, E. The role of the founder in the creation of organizational culture, in Frost, P. et al, ed. Reframing Organizational Culture, Newbury Park, CA.: Sage Publications, 1991: 14-25.

SCHEIN, E. Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985. SERIEYX, H. Le zéro mépris. Paris: InterEditions, 1989.

SIEVERS, B. Work, life and death itself. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1996.

SIEVERS, B. Beyond the surrogate of motivation. Organization Studies, vol. 7, 1986a: 335-351. SIEVERS, B. Participation as a collusive quarrel over immortality. the Journal of SCOS, vol. 1, Iss. 1, 1986b: 72-82.

SOLOMON, R. C.; K.R. Hanson. It's good business. New York: Atheneum, 1985.

TERKEL, D. Working. New York: Avon Books, 1972. TURNER, B. A. ed. Organizational symbolism. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1990. VARELA, F. J. Principles of biological autonomy. New York: Elsevier North Holland, 1980.

VILLETTE, M. L'homme qui croyait au management. Paris: Seuil, 1988.

VINCENT, J. C. Des systèmes et des hommes. Paris: Les Editions d'organisation, 1990. WATERMAN, R. The renewal factor. New York: Bantam, 1987. WEITZMAN, M. The share economy: Conquering stagflation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.

ARCHIER, G.; SERIEYX, H. The type 3 company. Hampshire, UK: Gower Publishing Limited, 1987.
ATLAN, H. Du bruit comme principe d'auto-organisation. Communications, vol. 18, 1972: 21-37.
ATLAN, H. Ordre et désordre dans les systèmes naturels, in A. Chanlat & M. Dufour, eds., La rupture entre l'entreprise et les hommes. Paris: Editions d'Organisation, 1985: 119-137.
BAECHLER, J. Le capitalisme - Tome 1: Les origines. Paris: Gallimard, 1995.
BESANÇON, A. L'histoire psychanalytique. Une anthologie. Paris: Mouton Ed., 1974.
BEYNON, H. Working for Ford. London: Penguin Books, 1973.
BRAVERMAN, H. Labor and monopoly capital. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974.
CAILLÉ, A. Critique de la raison utilitaire, manifeste du MAUSS. Paris: La Découverte, 1989.
CHANLAT, A.; BÉDARD, R. La gestion, une affaire de parole, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed., L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Québec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 79-99
CHANLAT, A.; DUFOUR, M. La rupture entre l'entreprise et les hommes. Montreal: Quebec-Amérique, 1985.
CHANLAT, J.-F. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées, Québec: Presses de l'Universite Laval, 1990.
CHOSSUDOVSKY, M. The globalization of poverty. 2^nd edition, Oro, ON, Canada: Global Outlook, 2003.
CLEGG, S. R. Power, myth and domination. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975.
CLEGG, S. R. Pouvoir symbolique, langage et organisation, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed., L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de 1'Universite Laval, 1990: 663-681.
CROZIER, M. L'entreprise a l'écoute. Paris: InterEditions, 1989.
DAMASIO, A. Descarte's error: emotion, reason and the human brain. New York: Avon, 1995.
DEAL, T. E.; KENNEDY, A. Corporate culture: the rites and rituals of corporate life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1982.
DEJOURS, C. Le travail, usure mentale. Paris: Le Centurion, 1980.
DEJOURS, C. Nouveau regard sur 1a souffrance humaine dans les organizations, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 687-708.
DEJOURS, C. Souffrance en France. Paris : Editions du Seuil, 1998.
DEPREE, M. Leadership is an art. New York: Doubleday, 1989.
DEVEUREUX, G. Essais d'ethno-psychiatrie générale. Paris : Gallimard, 1973.
ERIKSON, E. Childhood and society. New York: WW Norton, 1993.
ETCHEGOYEN, A. Les entreprises ont-e1les une âme? Paris: Francois Bourrin, 1990.
ETZIONI, A. The moral dimension: toward a new economics. New York: Free Press, 1989.
EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. Social anthropology. London: Cohen & West, 1950.
FROMM, E. Marx's concept of man. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1961.
GALBRAITH, J.K. Economics in perspective. A critical history. Boston: Hougton Miflin, 1987.
GASPARINI, G. Temps et travail en occident, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 199-214
GIRIN, J. Langage en actes et organisations, in Économie et Societé, The ISMEA Proceedings on Management Sciences, vol. 3, Iss. 16, 1982: 1559-1591.
GIRIN, J. Problèmes de langage dans les organisations, in J.F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 37-78.
GODELIER, M. Rationality and irrationality in economics. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974.
HASSARD, J. Time, work and organization. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1988.
HASSARD, J. Pour un paradigme ethnographique du temps de travail, in J.F. CHANLAT, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec:Presses de l'Universite Laval, 1990: 215-230.
HERZBERG, F. Humanities: practical management education, Industry Week, vol. 206, Iss.7, 1980: 69-72.
HIRSCHMAN, A.O. The passions and the interests. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
KAMDEM, E. Temps et travail en Afrique, in J.F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 231-255.
KETS DE VRIES, M.; MILLER, D. The neurotic organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
KOLAKOWSKI, L. Histoire du marxisme. (vol. 1). Paris: Fayard, 1987.
LAPLANTINE, F. Ethnopsychiatrie générale. Paris: Psychothèque, 1973.
LEVY, J-P. La fabrique de l'Homme. Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob, 1997.
MARCUSE, H. One dimensional man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society. New York: Beacon Press, 1964.
ASLOW, A. Motivation and personality. New York: Harper, 1954.
MASLOW, A. Toward humanistic biology. American Psychologist, vol. 24, 1969: 724-735.
MATURANA, H. Tree of Knowledge. Boston: Shambhala, 1992.
MICHEL, S. Peut-on gérer les motivations? Paris: PUF, 1989.
MINTZBERG, H. Inside our strange world of organisations. New York: Free Press, 1989.
MITROFF, I. I.; Pauchant, T. We're so big and powerful nothing bad can happen to us. New York: Birch Lane Press, 1990.
MONTHOUX, P. The moral philosophy of management. Unpublished manuscript, Stockholm University, 1989.
MORGAN, G. Images of organizations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986.
MORIN, E. Terre-patrie. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1993.
OLIVE, D. Just rewards: the case of ethical reform in business. Toronto: Key Porter Books, 1987.
ORGOGOZO, I.; SERIEYX, H. Changer le changement. Paris: Seuil, 1989.
OUCHI, W. G. Theory Z: how American business can meet the Japanese challenge. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1981.
PACKARD, V. The ultra rich: How much is too much? London: Little, Brown, 1989.
PAGÈS, M., BONETTI, V.; GAULEJAC, V. de. L'emprise de l'organisation. 3rd ed. Paris: PUF, 1984.
PERROW, C. Organizational theory in a society of organizations. Paper presented at the symposium: L'administration publique: Perspectives d'avenir Public, Quebec, 1979.
PETERS, T.; WATERMAN, R. In search of excellence. New York: Harper & Row, 1982.
PETERS, T. Thriving on chaos. San Francisco: Knopf, 1987.
PETERS, T.; N. Austin. A passion of excellence. New York: Ramdom House, 1985.
PFEFFER, R. Working for capitalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.
RIFKIN, J. The entropy law: a new world view. New York: Bantam Books, 1980.
ROSALDO, R. Subjectivity in social analysis, Chap. 8, from Culture and truth. The remaking of social analysis, Boston: Beacon Press, 1989: 168-195.
SAINSAULIEU, R. La regulation culturelle des ensembles organismes. L'Année sociologique, vol. 33, 1983: 195-217.
SAINSAULIEU, R. Développement social et création institutionnelle en entreprise, Desjeux, D., ed. Organisation et management en question(s). Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987: 203-221.
SARTRE, J.-P. Existenlialism and humanism. London: Methuen, 1948.
SARTRE, J.-P. Being and nothingness. New York: Washington Square Press, 1966.
SARTRE, J.-P. Critique of dialectical reason (vol. 1). London: New Left Books, 1976.
SCHEIN, E. The role of the founder in the creation of organizational culture, in Frost, P. et al, ed. Reframing Organizational Culture, Newbury Park, CA.: Sage Publications, 1991: 14-25.
SCHEIN, E. Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
SERIEYX, H. Le zéro mépris. Paris: InterEditions, 1989.
SIEVERS, B. Work, life and death itself. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1996.
SIEVERS, B. Beyond the surrogate of motivation. Organization Studies, vol. 7, 1986a: 335-351.
SIEVERS, B. Participation as a collusive quarrel over immortality. the Journal of SCOS, vol. 1, Iss. 1, 1986b: 72-82.
SOLOMON, R. C.; K.R. Hanson. It's good business. New York: Atheneum, 1985.
TERKEL, D. Working. New York: Avon Books, 1972.
TURNER, B. A. ed. Organizational symbolism. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1990.
VARELA, F. J. Principles of biological autonomy. New York: Elsevier North Holland, 1980.
VILLETTE, M. L'homme qui croyait au management. Paris: Seuil, 1988.
VINCENT, J. C. Des systèmes et des hommes. Paris: Les Editions d'organisation, 1990.
WATERMAN, R. The renewal factor. New York: Bantam, 1987.
WEITZMAN, M. The share economy: Conquering stagflation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.

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23 Oct 2014
Date of issue
June 2008

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

[1] ARCHIER, G.; SERIEYX, H. The type 3 company. Hampshire, UK: Gower Publishing Limited, 1987.

[2] ATLAN, H. Du bruit comme principe d'auto-organisation. Communications, vol. 18, 1972: 21-37.

[3] ATLAN, H. Ordre et désordre dans les systèmes naturels, in A. Chanlat & M. Dufour, eds., La rupture entre l'entreprise et les hommes. Paris: Editions d'Organisation, 1985: 119-137.

[4] BAECHLER, J. Le capitalisme - Tome 1: Les origines. Paris: Gallimard, 1995.

[5] BESANÇON, A. L'histoire psychanalytique. Une anthologie. Paris: Mouton Ed., 1974.

[6] BEYNON, H. Working for Ford. London: Penguin Books, 1973.

[7] BRAVERMAN, H. Labor and monopoly capital. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974.

[8] CAILLÉ, A. Critique de la raison utilitaire, manifeste du MAUSS. Paris: La Découverte, 1989.

[9] CHANLAT, A.; BÉDARD, R. La gestion, une affaire de parole, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed., L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Québec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 79-99

[10] CHANLAT, A.; DUFOUR, M. La rupture entre l'entreprise et les hommes. Montreal: Quebec-Amérique, 1985.

[11] CHANLAT, J.-F. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées, Québec: Presses de l'Universite Laval, 1990.

[12] CHOSSUDOVSKY, M. The globalization of poverty. 2^nd edition, Oro, ON, Canada: Global Outlook, 2003.

[13] CLEGG, S. R. Power, myth and domination. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975.

[14] CLEGG, S. R. Pouvoir symbolique, langage et organisation, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed., L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de 1'Universite Laval, 1990: 663-681.

[15] CROZIER, M. L'entreprise a l'écoute. Paris: InterEditions, 1989.

[16] DAMASIO, A. Descarte's error: emotion, reason and the human brain. New York: Avon, 1995.

[17] DEAL, T. E.; KENNEDY, A. Corporate culture: the rites and rituals of corporate life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1982.

[18] DEJOURS, C. Le travail, usure mentale. Paris: Le Centurion, 1980.

[19] DEJOURS, C. Nouveau regard sur 1a souffrance humaine dans les organizations, in J.-F. Chanlat, ed. L'individu dans l'organisation. Les dimensions oubliées. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval, 1990: 687-708.

[20] DEJOURS, C. Souffrance en France. Paris : Editions du Seuil, 1998.

[21] DEPREE, M. Leadership is an art. New York: Doubleday, 1989.

[22] DEVEUREUX, G. Essais d'ethno-psychiatrie générale. Paris : Gallimard, 1973.

[23] ERIKSON, E. Childhood and society. New York: WW Norton, 1993.

[24] ETCHEGOYEN, A. Les entreprises ont-e1les une âme? Paris: Francois Bourrin, 1990.

[25] ETZIONI, A. The moral dimension: toward a new economics. New York: Free Press, 1989.

[26] EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. Social anthropology. London: Cohen & West, 1950.

[27] FROMM, E. Marx's concept of man. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1961.

[28] GALBRAITH, J.K. Economics in perspective. A critical history. Boston: Hougton Miflin, 1987.

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Radical humanism and management: the implications of humanism for business administration and studies

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