Directive (Garretsen et al., 2022; Krause et al., 2022Krause, R., Withers, M. C., & Waller, M. J. (2022). Leading the board in a crisis: Strategy and performance implications of board chair directive leadership. Journal of Management, 01492063221121584. https://doi.org/10.1177/01492063221121584 https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206322112158...
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Directive leadership was observed more often at the beginning of the pandemic, transitioning to more participatory practices with time. |
Leads to better strategic planning to face the pandemic. |
Ethical (Lee et al., 2022Lee, S. H., Hur, W. M., & Shin, Y. (2022). Struggling to stay engaged during adversity: A daily investigation of frontline service employees’ job insecurity and the moderating role of ethical leader behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 184(1), 281-295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05140-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05140...
; Liu et al., 2022Liu, B. F., Shi, D., Lim, J. R., Islam, K., Edwards, A. L., & Seeger, M. (2022). When crises hit home: How US higher education leaders navigate values during uncertain times. Journal of Business Ethics, 179(2), 353-368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04820-5 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04820...
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Promotes reciprocal communication and offers an example of conduct. It encompasses attention and care for others. The theory is concerned with accuracy, transparency, fairness, and accountability. Security is a priority. |
Reduces the perception of insecurity and disengagement. It helps to face the context volatility. |
Transformational (Nguyen et al., 2022Nguyen, T. M., Malik, A., & Budhwar, P. (2022). Knowledge hiding in organi-zational crisis: The moderating role of leadership. Journal of Business Research, 139, 161-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.09.026 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.0...
; Kloutsiniotis et al., 2022Kloutsiniotis, P. V., Mihail, D. M., Mylonas, N., & Pateli, A. (2022). Transformational leadership, HRM practices and burnout during the Covid-19 pandemic: The role of personal stress, anxiety, and workplace loneliness. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 102, 103177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103177 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.1031...
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Offers resources and shows the purpose of the work, inspires people; study highlights the essential role of line managers. |
Reduces role conflict, job insecurity, and cynicism; reduces stress and anxiety about financial problems, isolation effects, and burnout. |
Resonant (Ramaswamy et al., 2022Ramaswamy, M., Viswanathan, R., Kaniyarkuzhi, B. K., & Neeliyadath, S. (2022). The moderating role of resonant leadership and workplace spiritua-lity on the relationship between psychological distress and organizational commitment. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 34(4), 855-877. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2143273 https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.21...
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Empowers team members by promoting confidence in performance, compassion, and empathy. |
Promotes positive emotions, increases self-efficacy, resilience, sense of belonging and commitment, and reduces anxiety and depression. |
Emotional (Ramli et al., 2023Ramli, K., Spigel, B., Williams, N., Mawson, S., & Jack, S. (2023). Managing through a crisis: Emotional leadership strategies of high-growth entrepreneurs during the Covid-19 pandemic. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 35(1-2), 24-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2022.2143905 https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2022.21...
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Cares about mental and economic well-being and prioritizes supporting employees’ mental and physical well-being. Its strategic approach prioritizes the company’s financial security, cutting costs and ensuring positive cash flow. |
Maximizes organizational resilience (the ability of workers to respond to sudden changes brought about by a crisis), avoids burnout, and maintains mental well-being. |
Servant (Ruiz-Palomino et al., 2022Ruiz-Palomino, P., Yáñez-Araque, B., Jiménez-Estévez, P., & Gutiérrez-Broncano, S. (2022). Can servant leadership prevent hotel employee depression during the Covid-19 pandemic? A mediating and multigroup analysis. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 174, 121192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121192 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021....
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Is concerned and willing to sacrifice for others. Promotes confidence rather than insecurity and fosters honesty. It is a leadership moved by a higher calling, focusing on people’s development. The study highlights the crucial role of the immediate superior. |
Increases individual social capital that reduces depression and contributes to adaptation. |
LMX (Tuan, 2022Tuan, L. T. (2022). Leader crisis communication and salesperson resilience in face of the Covid-19: The roles of positive stress mindset, core beliefs challenge, and family strain. Industrial Marketing Management, 102, 488-502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2021.12.006 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2021...
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Establishes high-quality relationships with subordinates. Communicates clearly and transparently the policies related to the crisis. Develops a close connection with the followers and support their work. |
More resilience and a positive mindset when it comes to stress. It facilitates the development of other resources such as perseverance, constructive thinking, flexibility, and adaptability to the crisis. |