Landsat data (band 1 to 5, 7, and indexes) |
Six multispectral bands from Landsat 5 TM; derived indexes: NDVI (band 4 - band 3)/(band 4 + band 3); clay minerals (band 5/band 7); Iron Oxide (band 3/band 1) |
Yang et al. (1997)Yang W, Yang L, Merchant JW. An assessment of AVHRR/NDVI-ecoclimatological relations in Nebraska, U.S.A. Int J Remote Sens. 1997;18:2161-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/014311697217819
https://doi.org/10.1080/014311697217819...
, Sabins (1997Sabins FF. Remote sensing: principles and interpretation. 3rd ed. New York: Waveland Press, Inc.; 1997., 1999Sabins FF. Remote sensing for mineral exploration. Ore Geol Rev. 1999;14:157-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1368(99)00007-4
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1368(99)00...
), Chagas et al. (2013)Chagas CS, Vieira CAO, Fernandes Filho EI. Comparison between artificial neural networks and maximum likelihood classification in digital soil mapping. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2013;37:339-51. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832013000200005
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201300...
, Pinheiro et al. (2013)Pinheiro HSK, Anjos LHC, Chagas CS. Mapeamento digital de solos por redes neurais artificiais - estudo de caso: bacia hidrográfica do rio Guapi-Macacu, RJ. Germany: Novas Edições Acadêmicas; 2013.
|
(1,2,3) |
(1,2,3) |
(1,2,3) |
(1,2,3) |
(1,2,3) |
(1,2,3) |
Geology map |
Simplified map from lithology units (Brazilian Department of Mineral Resources, at a 1:50,000 scale) |
Pinheiro et al. (2013)Pinheiro HSK, Anjos LHC, Chagas CS. Mapeamento digital de solos por redes neurais artificiais - estudo de caso: bacia hidrográfica do rio Guapi-Macacu, RJ. Germany: Novas Edições Acadêmicas; 2013.
|
(1,2) |
N |
(1,2) |
N |
(1,2) |
N |
Landform map |
Landform map (Geomorphon classification) with the ten most common landforms (flat, peak, ridge, shoulder, spur, slope, hollow, footslope, valley, and pit), considering a broad range of scales according to the search radius distance (predefined as 45 cells) and flatness threshold (1°) |
Jasiewicz and Stepinski (2013)Jasiewicz J, Stepinski TF. Geomorphons - a pattern recognition approach to classification and mapping of landforms. Geomorphology. 2013;182:147-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.11.005
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012....
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Elevation |
DEM from interpolation of primary elevation data, described by Pinheiro et al. (2012)Pinheiro HSK, Chagas CS, Carvalho Júnior W, Anjos LHC. Modelos de elevação para obtenção de atributos topográficos utilizados em mapeamento digital de solos. Pesq Agropec Bras. 2012;47:1384-94. https//doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2012000900024 https//doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2012000...
|
Hutchinson and Gallant (2000)Hutchinson MF, Gallant JC. Digital elevation models and representation of terrain shape. In: Wilson JP, Gallant JC, editors. Terrain analysis: principles and applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2000. p. 29-50., Moore et al. (1991)Moore ID, Grayson RB, Ladson AR. Digital terrain modelling: a review of hydrological. geomorphological and biological applications. Hydrology Processes. 1991;5:3-30. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360050103
https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360050103...
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Slope |
Slope gradient, first derivative from the DEM (%) |
Thompson et al. (2001)Thompson JA, Bell JC, Butler CA. Digital elevation model resolution: effects on terrain attribute calculation and quantitative soil-landscape modeling. Geoderma. 2001;100:67-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(00)00081-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(00)00...
, Wilson and Gallant (2000)Wilson JP, Gallant JC. Terrain analysis: principles and applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2000.
|
0 |
(1,2) |
0 |
(1,2) |
0 |
(1) |
Curvature classification |
Classification of surface curvature based on the combination of profile and plan curvatures. Negative values correspond to concave surfaces, positive to convex, and planar surfaces between −0.01 and 0.01 |
Hall and Olson, (1991)Hall GF, Olson CG. Predicting variability of soils from landscape models. In: Mausbach MJ, Wilding LP, editors. Spatial variabilities of soils and landforms. Madison: Soil Science Society of America; 1991. p. 9-24. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaspecpub28.c2
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaspecpub28.c2...
, Gessler et al. (1995)Gessler PE, Moore ID, McKenzie NJ, Ryan PJ. Soil-landscape modelling and spatial prediction of soil attributes. Int J Geogr Inf Syst. 1995;9:421-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/02693799508902047
https://doi.org/10.1080/0269379950890204...
, Figueiredo (2006)Figueiredo SR. Mapeamento supervisionado de solos através do uso de regressões logísticas múltiplas e sistema de informações geográficas [dissertação]. Porto Alegre: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; 2006.
|
(1,2,3) |
0 |
(1,3) |
0 |
(1,2) |
0 |
Euclidean distance |
Linear distance of the nearest stream network feature (m) |
Pinheiro (2012)Pinheiro HSK, Chagas CS, Carvalho Júnior W, Anjos LHC. Modelos de elevação para obtenção de atributos topográficos utilizados em mapeamento digital de solos. Pesq Agropec Bras. 2012;47:1384-94. https//doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2012000900024 https//doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2012000...
, Cunha (2013)Cunha AM. Seleção de variáveis ambientais e de algoritmos de classificação para mapeamento digital de solos [tese]. Viçosa, MG: Universidade Federal de Viçosa; 2013.
|
(1) |
(1) |
(1) |
(1) |
(1) |
(1,2) |
Compound topographic index - CTI |
Topographic wetness index calculated according to slope and catchment area [CTI = ln (As/tan ß)], where As is the catchment, and ß represents slope in radians |
Böhner and Selige (2006)Böhner J, Selige T. Spatial prediction of soil attributes using terrain analysis and climate regionalisation. In: Böhner J, McCloy KR, Strobl J. SAGA - Analysis and modelling applications. v. 115. Göttingen: Verlag Erich Goltze GmbH; 2006. p. 13-27. (Göttinger Geographische Abhandlungen)., Moore et al. (1993)Moore ID, Gessler PE, Nielsen GA, Peterson GA. Soil attribute prediction using terrain analysis. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 1993;57:443-52. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1993.03615995005700020026x
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1993.036159...
, Gessler et al. (1995)Gessler PE, Moore ID, McKenzie NJ, Ryan PJ. Soil-landscape modelling and spatial prediction of soil attributes. Int J Geogr Inf Syst. 1995;9:421-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/02693799508902047
https://doi.org/10.1080/0269379950890204...
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Mass balance index |
Represent areas of soil loss and accumulation. Negative values correspond to depressions, and positive values are related to convex steep and erosional slopes. Values near zero represent balance between soil loss and accumulation |
Moller and Volk (2015)Möller M, Volk M. Effective map scales for soil transport process and related process domains - statistical and spatial characterization of their scale-specific inaccuracies. Geoderma. 2015;247-248:151-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.02.003
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015....
, Moller et al. (2008)Möller M, Volk M, Friedrich K, Lymburner L. Placing soil-genesis and transport processes into a landscape context: a multiscale terrain-analysis approach. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci. 2008;171:419-30. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200625039
https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200625039...
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Mid-slope position |
Relative vertical distance to the mid-slope valley or crest directions |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Häring et al. (2012)Häring T, Dietz E, Osenstetter S, Koschitzki T, Schröder B. Spatial disaggregation of complex soil map units: a decision-tree based approach in Bavarian forest soils. Geoderma. 2012;185-186:37-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.04.001
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012....
|
(3) |
0 |
(3) |
0 |
(3) |
0 |
Modified catchment area |
Flow accumulation in pixels as a sum of precedent flow in catchment area (pixels or square meters) |
Lea (1992)Lea NJ. An aspect-driven kinematic routing algorithm. In: Parsons AJ, Abrahams AD, editors. Overland flow: hydraulics and erosion mechanics. London: Routledge; 1992. p. 374-88., Costa-Cabral and Burges (1994)Costa-Cabral MC, Burges SJ. Digital elevation model networks (DEMON): a model of flow over hillslopes for computation of contributing and dispersal areas. Water Resour Res. 1994;30:1681-92. https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR03512
https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR03512...
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
(1) |
Multiresolution index of ridge top flatness - MrRTF |
Indicate flat positions on high elevation areas |
Gallant and Dowling (2003)Gallant JC, Dowling TI. A multiresolution index of valley bottom flatness for mapping depositional areas. Water Resour Res. 2003;39:1347. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002WR001426
https://doi.org/10.1029/2002WR001426...
|
(1,2) |
(2) |
(1,2) |
(2) |
(1,2) |
(2) |
Multiresolution index of valley bottom flatness -MrVBF |
Indicate flat surfaces on valley bottom |
Gallant and Dowling (2003)Gallant JC, Dowling TI. A multiresolution index of valley bottom flatness for mapping depositional areas. Water Resour Res. 2003;39:1347. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002WR001426
https://doi.org/10.1029/2002WR001426...
|
(1) |
0 |
(1,2) |
0 |
(1) |
0 |
Normalized height |
Relative topographic position (%) used for modeling relative heights and slope positions |
Böhner and Conrad (2007)Böhner J, Conrad O. Module relative heights and slope positions. SAGA - System for automated geoscientific analyses; 2007. Available at: www.saga-gis.org/saga_tool_doc/2.2.6/ta_morphometry_14.html www.saga-gis.org/saga_tool_doc/2.2.6/ta_...
, Nguyen et al. (2006)Nguyen MQ, Atkinson PM, Lewis HG. Superresolution mapping using a hopfield neural network with fused images. IEEE T Geosci Remote. 2006;44:736-49. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2005.861752
https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2005.861752...
|
(3) |
0 |
(3) |
(1) |
0 |
(3) |
Protection index |
Maximum angle of zenith or at nadir relating a point to surrounding relief |
Yokoyama (2002)Yokoyama R, Shirasawa M, Pike RJ. Visualizing topography by openness: a new application of image processing to digital elevation models. Photogramm Eng Rem S. 2002;68:257-65., Bruna et al. (2013)Brůna J, Wild J, Svoboda M, Heurich M, Müllerovà J. Impacts and underlying factors of landscape-scale, historical disturbance of mountain forest identified using archival documents. Forest Ecol Manag. 2013;305:294-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.06.017
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.06...
, Yokoyama (2002)Yokoyama R, Shirasawa M, Pike RJ. Visualizing topography by openness: a new application of image processing to digital elevation models. Photogramm Eng Rem S. 2002;68:257-65.
|
(3) |
(1) |
(3) |
(1) |
(3) |
(1,3) |
Sky view factor and Sky view factor (simplified) |
Represents the fraction of visible sky viewed from the ground up. Varies from 0 to 1 from the location center |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Zakšek et al. (2011)Zakšek K, Oštir K, Kokalj Ž. Sky-view factor as a relief visualization technique. Remote Sens. 2011;3:398-415. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs3020398
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs3020398...
|
(1,2,3) |
(1) |
(1,2,3) |
0 |
(1,2,3) |
(1,2) |
Slope height |
Vertical distance from the base of the slope to the crest, or line of intersection of the two slope planes |
Böhner and Conrad (2007)Böhner J, Conrad O. Module relative heights and slope positions. SAGA - System for automated geoscientific analyses; 2007. Available at: www.saga-gis.org/saga_tool_doc/2.2.6/ta_morphometry_14.html www.saga-gis.org/saga_tool_doc/2.2.6/ta_...
, Gökceoglu and Aksoy(1996)Gökceoglu C, Aksoy H. Landslide susceptibility mapping of the slopes in the residual soils of the Mengen region (Turkey) by deterministic stability analyses and image processing techniques. Eng Geol. 1996;44:147-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(97)81260-4
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(97)81...
|
(1,2) |
0 |
(1,2) |
0 |
(1,2) |
0 |
Solar radiation |
Potential incoming solar radiation (insolation) or amount of incoming solar energy (KWH m−2 yr−1) |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Thompson et al. (2012)Thompson JA, Roecker S, Grunwald S, Owens PR. Digital soil mapping: interactions with and applications for hydropedology. In: Lin H, editor. Hydropedology: synergistic integration of soil science and hydrology. Amsterdam: Academic Press; 2012. p. 665-709.
|
(2,3) |
0 |
(2,3) |
0 |
(2,3) |
0 |
Total insolation |
Sum of direct and diffuse incoming solar radiation (KWH m−2 yr−1) |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Wilson and Gallant (2000)Wilson JP, Gallant JC. Terrain analysis: principles and applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2000.
|
(1,3) |
0 |
(1,3) |
0 |
(1,3) |
0 |
Terrain view factor |
Factor of terrain obstruction to incoming radiation |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Sandmeier and Itten (1997)Sandmeier S, Itten KI. A physically-based model to correct atmospheric and illumination effects in optical satellite data of rugged terrain. IEEE T Geosci Remote. 1997;35:708-17. https://doi.org/10.1109/36.581991
https://doi.org/10.1109/36.581991...
|
(1,2,3) |
(3) |
(1,2,3) |
(2,3) |
(1,2,3) |
0 |
Valley depth |
Vertical distance of a base level channel network (m) |
Conrad (2012) |
(3) |
0 |
(3) |
0 |
(3) |
0 |
Altitude above the channel |
Vertical distance of stream network (m) |
Prates et al. (2012)Prates V, Souza LCP, Oliveira Junior JC. Índices para a representação da paisagem como apoio para levantamento pedológico em ambiente de geoprocessamento. R Bras Eng Agric Ambient. 2012;16:408-14. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-43662012000400011
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-4366201200...
, Brenning (2009)Brenning A. Benchmarking classifiers to optimally integrate terrain analysis and multispectral remote sensing in automatic rock glacier detection. Remote Sens Environ. 2009;113:239-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.09.005
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.09.00...
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
(2) |
0 |
0 |
Vertical overland flow distance |
Vertical distance projected of mean runoff length (m) |
Freeman (1991)Freeman GT. Calculating catchment area with divergent flow based on a regular grid. Comp Geosc. 1991;17:413-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0098-3004(91)90048-I
https://doi.org/10.1016/0098-3004(91)900...
, Quinn et al. (1991)Quinn P, Beven K, Chevallier P, Planchon O. The prediction of hillslope flow paths for distributed hydrological modelling using digital terrain models. Hydrol Process. 1991;5:59-79. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360050106
https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360050106...
, Gomi et al. (2008)Gomi T, Sidle RC, Miyata S, Kosugi K, Onda Y. Dynamic runoff connectivity of overland flow on steep forested hillslopes: scale effects and runoff transfer. Water Resour Res. 2008;44:W08411. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR005894
https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR005894...
|
(3) |
0 |
(2,3) |
0 |
0 |
(2,3) |
SAGA wetness index |
Similar to the ‘Topographic Wetness Index’ (TWI); however, it is based on a modified catchment area |
Böhner et al. (2002)Böhner J, Köthe R, Conrad O, Gross J, Ringeler A, Selige T. Soil regionalisation by means of terrain analysis and process parameterisation. In: Micheli E, Nachtergaele FO, Jones RJA, Montanarella L, editors. Soil Classification 2001. Luxembourg: European Communities; 2002. p. 213-22. (European Soil Bureau Research Report No. 7)., Moore et al. (1993)Moore ID, Gessler PE, Nielsen GA, Peterson GA. Soil attribute prediction using terrain analysis. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 1993;57:443-52. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1993.03615995005700020026x
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1993.036159...
|
(3) |
0 |
(3) |
0 |
0 |
(3) |
Wind effect |
Climatic factor (m s−1) |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Ließ et al. (2014)Ließ M, Hitziger M, Huwe B. The sloping mire soil-landscape of Southern Ecuador: influence of predictor resolution and model tuning on random forest predictions. Appl Environ Soil Sci. 2014;3014:1-10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/603132
https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/603132...
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Hillshading |
The angle between the surface and the incoming radiation (radians) |
Tarini et al. (2006)Tarini M, Cignoni P, Montani C. Ambient occlusion and edge cueing to enhance real time molecular visualization. IEEE T Geosci Remote. 2006;12:1237-44. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2006.115
https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2006.115...
|
0 |
(2) |
0 |
(2) |
0 |
0 |
Channel network base level |
Difference between the DEM and a surface interpolated from the channel network (m) |
Grimaldi et al. (2007)Grimaldi S, Nardi F, Di Benedetto F, Istanbulluoglu E, Bras RL. A physically-based method for removing pits in digital elevation models. Adv Water Resour. 2007;30:2151-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2006.11.016
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2006...
|
(1,2,3) |
(3) |
(1,2,3) |
(3) |
(1,2,3) |
0 |
Diffuse insolation |
Incoming solar radiation reflected by atmospheric components (KWH m−2 yr−1) |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Wilson and Gallant (2000)Wilson JP, Gallant JC. Terrain analysis: principles and applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2000.
|
(3) |
0 |
(3) |
(1,2) |
(3) |
(1) |
Direct insolation |
Incoming solar insolation perpendicular to surface, excluding diffuse insolation (KWH m−2 yr−1) |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Wilson and Gallant (2000)Wilson JP, Gallant JC. Terrain analysis: principles and applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2000.
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Duration of insolation |
Mean time of incoming insolation by day (h day−1) |
Böhner and Antonic (2009)Böhner J, Antonic O. Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology. Dev Soil Sci. 2009;33:195-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00008-1
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00...
, Wilson and Gallant (2000)Wilson JP, Gallant JC. Terrain analysis: principles and applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2000.
|
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |