Human diversity in management and strategy studies: A bibliometric study

Abstract

Purpose

Our aim is to demonstrate how diversity is seen and how it could be represented as a set of meanings and beliefs and interpretative schemes within a social movement theory.

Theoretical framework

Our study is grounded in diversity and social movement theories.

Design/methodology/approach

Through a bibliometric study, we analyzed 121 papers published in 89 journals in the management and strategy field. The studies were classified and analyzed according to their distribution in two lines of research. The first line comprises studies that correlate patterns in social differences. The second line includes diversity studies developed based on critical research paradigms regarding characteristics related to specific social groups or minorities.

Findings

Considering the two lines of research that predominate in studies of human diversity, which clearly present different focuses in relation to their objectives, this research described the configuration of publications in these lines. We offer four propositions for organizational analysis and strategy studies considering diversity as a social movement.

Practical & social implications of research

Our work has a theoretical implication by including a new concept of organization and our practical implication lies in the possibilities for an inclusive way to view diversity in the organizational context.

Originality/value

This research paper provides informative insights in studying social movements as a category of diversity. It also complements the understanding of human diversity as a topic of interest in organization studies. This serves as good information to improve the development of themes of diversity in the workplace.

Keywords:
Bibliometrics; human diversity; organizational behavior; organizing; social movement

Resumo

Objetivo

Nosso objetivo é mostrar como a diversidade é vista e como pode ser representada como um conjunto de significados e crenças e esquemas interpretativos dentro de uma teoria do movimento social.

Referencial teórico

Nosso estudo está fundamentado em teorias de diversidade e de movimentos sociais.

Metodologia

Por meio de um estudo bibliométrico, analisamos 121 artigos publicados em 89 periódicos da área de gestão e estratégia. Os estudos foram classificados e analisados de acordo com sua distribuição em duas linhas de pesquisa. A primeira linha compreende estudos que correlacionam padrões de diferenças sociais. A segunda linha inclui estudos de diversidade desenvolvidos com base em paradigmas de pesquisa crítica sobre características relacionadas a grupos sociais específicos ou minorias.

Resultados

Considerando as duas linhas de pesquisa que predominam nos estudos da diversidade humana, elas apresentam focos claramente distintos em relação aos objetivos; esta pesquisa descreveu a configuração das publicações nestas linhas. Propomos quatro proposições de análise organizacional e estudos de estratégia considerando a diversidade como um movimento social.

Implicações práticas e sociais da pesquisa

Nosso trabalho possui uma implicação teórica, incluindo um novo conceito de organização – e nossa implicação prática é a possibilidade de um caminho inclusivo para a diversidade no contexto organizacional.

Contribuições

Este trabalho de pesquisa fornece insights informativos sobre o estudo dos movimentos sociais como categoria de diversidade. Também complementa a compreensão da diversidade humana como tema de interesse nos estudos organizacionais. Ele serve como informação útil para melhorar o desenvolvimento dos temas da diversidade no ambiente de trabalho.

Palavras-chave:
Bibliometria; diversidade humana; comportamento organizacional; organização; movimento social

1 Introduction

Human diversity is a topic of interest in organization studies due to its potential to offer different research frameworks, which lead to studies regarding human behavior in different contexts. For example, Manoharan and Singal (2017) mentioned how relationships of association and causality between the construct of human diversity and other explanatory variables of human behavior could be substantially different depending on the context or how in-depth the analysis is. For instance, we frequently find studies that propose theoretical relationships between the level of heterogeneity and the performance of a group in a specific context. In that case, we can assume two scenarios: higher heterogeneity of the group has a positive effect on the accomplishments of the group and performance in highly competitive environments (Hoisl et al., 2017; Mohammadi et al., 2017); or higher heterogeneity harms the performance of a specific group due to the conflicts generated by the differences among the individuals (Li & Hambrick, 2005).

Harrison and Klein (2007) reported this confusion in the literature regarding diversity and showed how complex theoretical explanations about the term diversity could be. The authors point out that this complexity is not necessarily related to the comprehension of the topic but to the generic variety of concepts and descriptions of that term. In the research mentioned above, diversity is conceptually associated with social differences in specific vital categories, such as age, gender, experience, etc. Studies carried out under this perspective aim to understand how these categories influence organizational results and human behavior in organizations regarding performance, innovation, leadership style, and social responsibility actions.

In other instances, diversity studies are developed based on critical research paradigms and refer to characteristics or attributes related to specific social or minority groups. These studies, for example, are related to discussions about prejudice, inequality, discrimination, and social exclusion (Baldiga & Coffman, 2016; Coffman et al., 2016; Karataş‐Özkan & Chell, 2015). Studies on that perspective have ideologically permeated meanings related to the term diversity. They use theories that support hostile social relations and show evidence of the disparities in the treatment of groups considered to be susceptible in comparison to other groups (Amini et al., 2016; Huffman et al., 2017).

In search of arguments to address these phenomena, we generate theoretical constructions marked by the specificities of our thematic area of organizations (business) without abandoning the dialogical connections with the knowledge generated in the theory of social movements, serving as inspiration to address contemporary organizational phenomena. Considering the aforementioned lines of research and the importance of diversity in human behavior in organizations, we aimed to describe the current configuration of the theme; as well as social movements as a category of diversity, and the quantitative distribution of studies about human diversity in research published in qualified management and strategy journals. We justify this investigation based on the lack of recent bibliometric surveys concerning the diversity of studies in the management field. Therefore, it is necessary to recognize the previous knowledge acquired to establish a new understanding.

Our research comprises an exploratory-descriptive study of a qualitative nature. We carried out a bibliometric study because of its capacity to set boundaries, limits, and areas of academic interest about the topic. Regarding the structure of our research, we divided it into the following sections: the background, in which we briefly present the two lines (we classified the studies as Line 1 and Line 2 exclusively for convenience) of research about diversity present in the literature and social movements as a category of diversity; the methods, where we describe the procedures carried out throughout the study; the results, where we present what we obtained; and the final thoughts, in which we present the propositions of organizational analysis and strategy studies considering diversity as a social movement, the conclusions, and suggestions for possible future work.

2 Literature review

2.1 Human Diversity: Line 1

The first approach, called Line 1, refers to studies about human diversity in the context of organizational behavior. It focuses on relationships of association or causality among the characteristics of social groups and other organizational variables.

The concept of diversity does not have only one universally accepted definition. According to the topic studied, studies in organization studies use this concept (Harrison & Klein, 2007). However, in a broad definition, Vertovec (2014) presents the term diversity as a synonym for patterns in social differences in specific vital categories. This corroborates the idea that key categories of diversity are decided according to the necessities of the researcher, and the topic studied (Harrison & Klein, 2007).

The definition of diversity, for instance, can be related to categories. According to Kristinsson et al. (2016), diversity is distinguished as demographic, psychological, and informational. The authors point out that studies about diversity usually use these categories, forming an established framework for analyzing the phenomenon. Liang et al. (2015) propose two levels for exploring diversity: surface-level and deep-level. The surface level refers to superficial and objective aspects of human diversity, like age, gender, and ethnicity. The deep level refers to more complex and comprehensive elements, such as personality and individual values.

The human diversity categories are defined based on the individual's characteristics or attributes regarding a specific aspect. For example, the demographic category refers to biological aspects noticeable to the researchers (Liang et al., 2015), including characteristics related to age, gender, and ethnicity. In general, the demographic category indicators are considered to control variables and assume that age, gender, and race can distinguish individuals since these factors influence those people's values and experiences (Kristinsson et al., 2016).

The age of executives, for example, is a feature used to justify their attitudes and behavior in organizations in terms of taking risks. The gender variable, on the other hand, explains organizational behavior and is mainly related to organizational growth, innovation, the organizational environment, performance, conformity in the decision-making process, and sustainability (Jizi & Nehme, 2017; Quintana-García & Benavides-Velasco, 2016). Jizi (2017) studied the role of gender diversity in corporate social responsibility management and confirmed the influence of corporate social responsibility on behavior and the prevention of misbehavior attitudes, focusing on the development of business ethics. The geographic aspect of the demographic category refers to relationships between human behavior and the region of origin of a specific person. That topic also covers issues related to the individual's ethnicity without focusing on matters concerning prejudice and discrimination. Using the term geographic diversity, Kim (2018) states that the difference in the location of one person in relation to another may substantially affect the relationship between them. This effect is due to differences in time, culture, and contexts.

On the other hand, the psychological category studies the differences in the behavior of individuals based on factors such as personality and the person's behavior when taking action (Kristinsson et al., 2016). Although that category is difficult to measure, it plays an essential role in diversity and behavior studies. In general, psychological diversity, also called deep-level diversity, refers to the values, beliefs, and attitudes of the members of a group regarding their actions (Batarseh et al., 2017). Several studies about human behavior in organizations use models and frameworks compatible with the psychology category of analysis. This is demonstrated in the use of the Big Five Personality Traits psychological analysis model for organizational performance (Judge & Zapata, 2015) and the studies about the relationship between narcissistic characteristics and organizational performance (Liu et al., 2016).

Kaufmann and Wagner (2017) emphasize the need for studies on diversity that comprise psychological variables. The authors focused their work on vibrant diversity, aiming to understand how diversity, in emotional terms, influences the performance of a cross-functional group. The research revealed how emotional diversity could explain the relationship between individuals that belong to specific groups, directly affecting the organization's capacity to solve conflicts, delays, quality, and financial costs.

Garcia Martinez et al. (2017) state that when related to aspects like cognitive abilities, attitudes, values, and knowledge, diversity studies can explain how the heterogeneity of groups can expand knowledge networks and generate new ideas, solve problems, and access external knowledge. However, the authors mention that heterogeneous groups are less likely to have cohesive collective thoughts, which might increase the probability of conflict.

The informational category refers to the differences in formal education, industry experience, and a specific function. It helps clarify issues regarding the development of social relationships between groups of individuals and how functions are distributed among these individuals in an organization. One of the assumptions of that category is that the groups that present different kinds of people concerning experience and knowledge potentially have more access to knowledge, expertise, networking, and experience compared to less diverse groups in the same categories (Kristinsson et al., 2016).

Hu and Liu (2015) state that, regarding career experience in an organization, decision-making is influenced by the professional expertise of its members and by social relationships acquired during those experiences, which affect how organizations access external capital.

Another aspect considered in the analysis of the individuals' behavior is education. Fang et al. (2018) studied the influence of educational composition on knowledge management and organizational learning based on two aspects: the individuals' level of education (high school, bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D. degree) and the undergraduate area of study (management, law, engineering, etc.). Additionally, Gompers et al. (2016) state that the homogeneity of a group concerning education results in collaboration and commitment of the members in the execution of collective action. That result can be generalized to the formation of social networks.

2.2 Human Diversity: Line 2

The second approach, called Line 2, refers to critical studies regarding the representation of minorities in the organizational context. These studies discuss sexuality, gender, and ethnicity (Hermans et al., 2017; Shan et al., 2017; Younkin & Kuppuswamy, 2017). Authors who support that research approach see the differences related to such issues as being responsible for conflicts among groups in the organizational scenario, which covertly or explicitly result in prejudice (Cortina, 2008). According to Vertovec (2014, p. 42), studies based on that approach aim to "end discrimination, [and achieve] equality of treatment, positive images, respect for rights and symbolic recognition." Attempts at political and legal changes follow this, and public demonstrations favor these rights.

The sexuality matter refers to lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, transvestites, and transgenders (or transsexuals) – LGBT. In 1996, the letter Q was added to the acronym. It corresponds to the queer category or those who question their own sexual identity. In addition, recently, a "plus" sign (+) was added to the acronym. It represents any other person whose gender category is not included in the categories indicated by the letters.

One of the studies that address that issue is the discussion of Coffman et al. (2016), which emphasizes the pressure other groups put on the LGBTQ+ population. However, the authors identify shortcomings in measuring the size of the population and the anti-gay feeling in organizations. In addition, the authors report the fragility of the methodology currently applied to obtain the research data about this topic, which occurs, in their opinion, due to the social normativity regarding issues concerning homosexuality. Consequently, the authors believe that individuals are not honest when answering questions about this topic.

This inability to measure the anti-gay feeling inside organizations affects the development of policies to overcome discrimination and helps conceal the prejudice in organizations. Also, according to that research, LGBTQ+ employees feel pressured by other groups, affecting their well-being and performance at work. Anteby and Anderson (2014) confirm the opinion of Coffman et al. (2016) as they state that the LGBTQ+ population has significant representation in organizations. However, scientific studies about this are still in their infancy.

On the other hand, the issue of gender diversity, according to Amini et al. (2016), comprises an increasing interest in the study of the participation of women in the job market, politics, and the economy. Research about this topic focuses on the role of women in organizations, their performance, and discrepancies between their treatment and that of men, including issues of harassment and salary differences. Huffman et al. (2017) point out the role of policies for equality between men and women regarding salary matters and the possibility of reaching administrative and supervisory positions. However, the authors believe that some issues remain unanswered even though we can accept the importance of equality policies in the organizational environment. For instance, current policies generally influence equity in operational positions. In contrast, access to the top of the organization and salaries compatible with higher hierarchical levels are still incompatible between men and women.

Finally, ethnic or racial diversity refers to differences in the treatment by a dominant group of a group considered to be weak in a specific context. Such discrimination happens inside organizations (among employees) and at inter-organizational levels. For example, Younkin and Kuppuswamy (2017) focus on the difficulty of access to capital by entrepreneurs from different ethnicities from the dominant one in the context where the company is located. This topic permeates the studies about policies and actions against discrimination in organizations and the struggle for representativeness and equity of treatment.

2.3 Social movements

For decades, diversity has been treated as an example of actions organized by minorities (Rosa & Mendonça, 2011) or by less advantaged individuals. This term emphasizes groups with little power and that are dependent on the majority with more power (Alves & Galeão-Silva, 2004). However, a series of material and symbolic struggles have strengthened the legal-social position and consolidated the identity of these minorities through political mobilization of collective actions called social movements (Sodré, 2005).

The literature review showed us the theory of social movements – with emphasis on the European dimension, whose focus is on identity, and the North American one, whose focus is on organizational thinking – can be a category of diversity since social movements are practices of social organization that "develop processes, organize, deliberate and produce territories in the most diverse ways" (Misoczky et al., 2008, p. 2).

The new social movements theory (European strand) emphasizes the actors' identity, culture, generalized beliefs, values, and post-industrial society's characteristics. For this theory, social movements are collective actions involving solidarity, conflict, and breaking the system's limits without changing its structure (Melucci, 1989), considered as movements of diffuse interests (Foweraker, 1995).

The theory of added value, for example, proposes that a social movement develops to spread a generalized system of beliefs, that is, as a shared vision of reality that redefines social action and serves as a guide for behavior (Smelser, 1962). According to the resource mobilization theory, these interest groups facilitate the constitution of social organization movements that, in addition to changing some elements of the social structure, can also change the distribution of rewards in society (McCarthy & Zald, 1977). It is also possible to form political alliances by making visible changes in the distribution or exercise of power, as related to the theory of the structure of political opportunities and the focus on coping dynamics (McAdam, 1996; Tarrow, 1994; Tilly, 1978). In this sense, "a movement achieved its objectives by transforming the demand claimed into an institutionalized policy or organization" (Pontes, 2015, p. 79).

Gamson (1975) and Snow et al. (1986) appropriated the goffmanian term of frame in studies on social movements in viewing the cultural aspects of collective action. For the authors, frames are strategic and significant benchmarks. In other words, a frame is symbolic and cognitive representations (a set of meanings and beliefs and interpretative schemes, respectively) developed by collectives to understand the world, with content that guides the practice based on past experiences, showing future action (Zald, 1996). Thus, social movements share the values that originated and sustained them (Gohn, 1997) while still being open to systematic and strategic creation and recreation of social movements (Pontes, 2015) in a recursive, adaptive, and inclusive process.

The construction and use of frames are characterized as a dynamic framing process to reveal the process nature of social movements, in the same way as Weick's conception of the verb-substantive relationship of organizing (enactment, selection, and retention of meanings) rather than organization concerned with organizational process as a continuous action. For Weick (1979; 1990), organizing is an interactive process to create collective sensemaking and rationalize it.

In sum, in social movements it "is helpful to focus on organizing as a process, instead of an organization as a static entity" to enable the capture of the unfolding of moments in continuous transformation (temporality) (Chia, 2010; de Bakker et al., 2017, p. 224).

3 Methodological procedures

According to Andrés (2010), the bibliometric survey applies mathematical and statistical methods to a particular group of studies aiming to measure the characteristics of the literature studied. Bibliometrics measures scientific studies through journal searching, aiming to collect, assess, and analyze those studies.

We analyzed the journals shown in Table 1, through a public portal that provides scientific indicators. It was developed from the information available in the Scopus (Scimago) database. Some journals do not allow the inclusion of the research limitation in the selected fields. Therefore, in those cases, we used all the results presented in the search field of these journals.

Table 1
The journals analyzed

N.	NAME OF THE JOURNAL
1	Journal of Financial Economics
2	Strategic Management Journal
3	Organizational Research Methods
4	Journal of Management Studies
5	Journal of International Business Studies
6	Journal of Operations Management
7	Management Science
8	Research Policy
9	International Journal of Management Reviews
10	Journal of Product Innovation Management
11	Long Range Planning
12	British Journal of Management
13	Business Strategy and Environment
14	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management
15	International Journal of Hospitality Management
16	Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management
17	Journal of International Management
18	Journal of Small Business Management
19	Human Resource Management
20	Journal of Cleaner Production
21	ILR Review
22	Corporate Governance
23	Journal of Corporate Finance
24	Journal of Economics & Management Strategy
25	R&D Management
26	Journal of Knowledge Management
27	European Management Journal
28	Journal of Air Transport Management
29	Management and Organization Review
30	European Management Review
31	Educational Management Administration & Leadership
32	Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society
33	Journal of Service Theory and Practice
34	Scandinavian Journal of Management
35	Management International Review
36	Interfaces
37	Management Communication Quarterly

The textual corpus for analysis was selected based on articles published in 89 journals, classified as Q1 (according to the SJR - Scimago Journal & Country Rank index) by the strategy and management field of the Scimago platform in 2016. Initially, we searched for the term diversity in the title, keywords, and abstract in each journal from 2014 to 2017. As a result, the number of journals was reduced to 37. Finally, we excluded the articles that referred to diversity concerning non-human characteristics, such as a variety of investment options of an organization or plurality of production methods of a particular product.

One limitation of the research is the period of coverage from 2014 to 2017.

Habermas (1987) presents the idea that scientific knowledge is not free from "value judgments." Therefore, another limitation of this work is the interpretation bias of the authors. Naturally, any mapping such as the one developed here is subject to preferences and exclusions. When classifying research lines, for example, considerable variations can be found. Moreover, whenever some classification is used, the results are affected by possible subjective aspects used in the development of the surveys and analyses, especially when one considers an organization ontology as being a tangle of relationships between humans and physical factors, which configure each other in constant interaction.

Moreover, the relationship between concrete experience and emergent abstractions produced by substantial experience influences concrete experience (Hernes, 2014). Therefore, when dealing with a continuous work of organizing, it is necessary to consider that these same limiting elements of research are the same ones that make its realization possible.

After the initial survey, we tabulated the selected articles to identify: the adopted line of research (Line 1 or Line 2, according to the classification adopted by this study); the type of diversity analyzed (according to the categories presented in the theoretical reference); the kind of research (empirical or theoretical); the method (quantitative or qualitative); and the theme(s) covered by the article.

4 Presentation and analysis of results

Regarding the distribution by research line, we found 121 articles (41% of the total) in 37: 81 from Line 1 and 40 from Line 2. Concerning the year of publication, there was an increase in the number of articles in 2014 (14 articles), 2015 (30 articles), 2016 (31 articles), and 2017 (45 articles), which means that 63% of the articles identified were published in the last two years of the temporal cut of the research.

Concerning the distribution of the types of studies about diversity identified in the articles of Line 1, the demographic diversity type stands out, present in 46.66% of the total published works in the two lines of research. We identified the information kind of diversity in 14.66% of the articles and the psychological type of diversity in 14.66%. Of the remaining studies, 24% addressed multiple categories simultaneously. In Line 2, the most frequent category was gender studies (62.5%), followed by studies of ethnic or racial diversity (17.5%) and LGBTQ+ diversity (7.5%).

4.1 Line 1 Results

Of the 81 articles related to Line 1, 71 are quantitative, 9 are qualitative, and 1 is classified as bibliometric. There is, therefore, the predominance of theoretical-empirical articles of a quantitative nature in the analyzed journals.

Figure 1 shows the topics addressed in the research exclusively focused on demographic diversity in terms of content (theme) and number of occurrences. As shown in Figure 1, regarding the studies that used variables of this kind of diversity (35 in total), there was a higher frequency of theoretical relationships between diversity and performance (11 occurrences) and diversity and social responsibility (8 occurrences). Less frequently, we identified relationships with the decision-making process, leadership, corporate governance, risk, knowledge, and innovation.

Figure 1
Topics in the study of human diversity: Line 1. Others*: corporate governance; risk; knowledge; and innovation. Others**: diversity and innovation; decision-making process; risk; and knowledge. Others***: diversity and human behavior; decision-making process; leadership; identity; and innovation.

Considering demographic studies, the researchers' interest in conducting research involving gender in organizations is noteworthy. Some studies associate sectors dominated by men and the perception of women's performance in this context, focusing on the differences in the perception of organizational performance when women are in leadership positions.

The role of women in organizations calls attention in the literature due to social pressures that demand greater female representativeness in high organizational positions (Sila et al., 2016). Thus, much of the literature on demographic characteristics seeks to understand the corporate results based on women's performance.

To broaden the understanding of organizational performance concerning diversity, other studies, in addition to gender, address ethnicity and age. Ararat et al. (2015) show these three characteristics in their work. In their study, the authors state that these characteristics combined affect organizational performance. The authors also report that human diversity positively impacts organizational performance in large companies, as they benefit from a heterogeneous monitoring board to control owners' actions. However, Ararat et al. (2015) also emphasize that the influence of diversity on organizational results also depends on the context in which it occurs.

The use of more than one characteristic of demographic diversity is also particularly useful in understanding the social connections that permeate an organization. For example, Fang et al. (2018) studied how demographic attributes can influence the relationships of an organization's managers. The authors state that heterogeneity of the players in a relationship provides diverse knowledge and new perspectives and aids in problem-solving.

The topics addressed in the research exclusively focused on informational diversity are represented in Figure 1 in terms of content (theme) and the number of occurrences. Figure 1 shows the studies that used this kind of diversity variable (11 in total), in which there was a higher frequency of theoretical relationships between diversity and performance (10 occurrences) as well as diversity and innovation (3 occurrences). Less frequently, we identified relationships with the decision-making process, risk, and knowledge.

The theoretical development of this research line serves as a basis for analyzing the capacities and abilities of the individuals of an organization concerning some organizational dimensions. For example, Protogerou et al. (2017) show that educational background affects organizational performance in terms of innovation. More precisely, the authors relate these characteristics to the ability of the organization's managers to gain new insights from outside sources and improve the performance of young companies.

Hoisl et al. (2017) studied human diversity, in the context of informational diversity, in work teams in highly competitive environments and affirmed that heterogeneous groups generate higher performance in large organizations, while they did not notice such results in small companies.

To expand the investigation on the performance of the teams of an organization – concerning its informational diversity – Bertolotti et al. (2015) tested the correlation between performance and informational diversity in relationships and communication between members of diverse teams. The authors point to the growing importance of collaborative work in organizations and, consequently, they highlight the relevance of dissemination of knowledge regarding the type and degree of informational diversity of different groups.

Another aspect present in the literature on informational diversity relates to the experiences of CEOs concerning their decisions. For example, Hu and Liu (2015) conducted a study that examines the experience of CEOs and their influence on the types of investments made by the organization. As a result, the authors report that CEOs with more diverse market experiences are more likely to choose external financing sources and avoid using the organization's cash flow to make investments.

Figure 1 also shows that psychological diversity in terms of content (theme) and quantity of occurrences used these kinds of diversity variables (11 in total), in which there was a higher frequency of theoretical relationships between diversity and performance (7 occurrences) as well as diversity and human behavior (3 occurrences). Less frequently, we identified relationships with the decision-making process, leadership, identity, and innovation.

Bridoux et al. (2017), for instance, analyzed the organization's performance in relation to the social motives of the individuals to evaluate whether they are individualists or reciprocals. As the authors explain, a workforce formed only by individualists causes a drop in organizational performance since adaptation to the hierarchy becomes more complex than for heterogeneous groups. Yet, a group of reciprocating individuals causes a reduction in performance due to its difficulty adapting to some social norms. Thus, the authors defend heterogeneous groups in dynamic environments.

Kane and Levina (2017) report that immigrant managers seeking adaptation and acceptance in other societies may shy away from their cultural traits. However, the authors verified that when a player acts in an organization conscious of their culture, it expands communication channels and manages to establish more relevant contacts with stakeholders. Ergo, when individual seeks to move away from their psychological traits, they narrow the relationships in the organizations to simple formal interactions, blocking the development of more fruitful relationships.

Kaufmann and Wagner (2017) emphasize the importance of emotional intelligence to avoid conflicts in organizations and achieve higher performance levels. In addition, the authors emphasize the importance of emotional intelligence from the participants of organizational teams when dealing with groups of other job positions to develop joint goals.

Finally, we found 18 papers that simultaneously use more than one type of diversity category in the research framework. For the most part, these articles use indicators that belong to two or more categories – such as age and experience in the job – to verify the heterogeneity or homogeneity of a team concerning organizational performance (Hsiao et al., 2015; Mohammadi et al., 2017; Ren et al., 2015).

4.2 Line 2 Results

Of the 40 articles related to Line 2, 24 are quantitative, 11 are qualitative, and 5 are theoretical. Therefore, there is a predominance of theoretical-empirical articles of a quantitative nature in the journals analyzed, although the proportion of qualitative articles is higher when compared to Line 1.

Figure 2 shows the themes addressed in the research that exclusively focused on gender diversity in terms of content (theme) and number of occurrences. As illustrated in the figure, regarding studies that used variables of this kind of diversity (25 in total), there was a higher frequency of theoretical relationships between diversity and equity (15 occurrences) and diversity and representativeness (13 occurrences). Less frequently, we identified relationships with leadership, compliance, and policy.

Figure 2
Themes addressed in human diversity: Line 2. Others*: leadership, compliance, and policy. Others**: diversity and identity; and diversity and entrepreneurship. Others***: diversity and equity.

Gender is the most representative category in Line 2, and most of the papers presented matters of equity and representativeness of women in organizations. Nevertheless, even though it is a repeated theme, the papers analyze the phenomenon in different contexts, which allows the understanding of more profound aspects of the subject.

One of the central points of gender studies in organizations is the role of women in high-level positions. Huffman et al. (2017) state that organizations present equity and gender representativeness policies, but such equity is only noticed in operational functions. Management positions are still mainly occupied by men, and, considering this context, it is possible to understand the attention given by the literature to those positions.

The work found in this category permeates discussions about the representativeness of women in organizations and the need for equity in their earnings. It is recognized that representativeness is increasing. However, there are criticisms about the reasons for this representativeness (the presence of women in organizations only in response to popular pressures). This is a new aspect in the literature and can generate new insights for research.

Figure 2 shows the themes addressed in the research that exclusively focused on ethnic diversity in terms of content (theme) and number of occurrences. In relation to the studies that used variables of this kind of diversity (7 in total), there was a higher frequency of theoretical relationships between diversity and equity (3 occurrences), diversity and identity (2 occurrences), and diversity and entrepreneurship (2 occurrences).

This line of research is characterized as addressing discriminatory issues of black entrepreneurs and employees in the labor market. Younkin and Kuppuswamy (2017) report that such cases receive little attention from academia, even though it is a subject of economic and social interest. Prejudiced attitudes affect the people in these groups and society at large. According to the authors, investors evaluate the same project differently when they have the information that the author is black. This type of prejudice can make potentially competitive and quality organizations unfeasible. Other aspects of this research relate to equity in the treatment of ethnic minorities and migrants (Janssens & Zanoni, 2014) and immigrants' identities in different contexts (Ossenkop et al., 2015).

Figure 2 shows the themes addressed in the research that exclusively focused on studying LGBTQ+ diversity in terms of content (theme) and number of occurrences. Concerning the studies that used variables of this kind of diversity (3 in total), there was a higher frequency of theoretical relationships between diversity and representativeness (2 occurrences) and diversity and equity (1 occurrence). The LGBTQ+ group represented 7.5% of the works related to Line 2. These studies also present a common characteristic: reports of the little attention given to this group in studies related to gender.

Marlow et al. (2018) state that the literature surrounding this group is underdeveloped and focuses only on the need for more excellent representation of women in organizations in sexist societies. The authors argue for extending the literature on gender, with importance also given to gay men and lesbians, for more consistent studies in this context. However, it is essential to note that the authors do not criticize studies on women. Also related to the study, Marlow et al. (2018) found few differences in the performance question between organizations controlled by homosexuals and heterosexuals. It is possible that this finding is a result of the analyzed context, which is already more politically and socially advanced in issues related to sexuality.

In contrast, Coffman et al. (2016) report that the LGBTQ+ population size and anti-gay attitude are underestimated. The authors argue that current research methods fail to encompass the real sense of the population about sexuality since this is a complex subject, and people do not admit that they are prejudiced. This result shows that the stigma of the LGBTQ+ population still exists in contemporary societies, which creates a kind of veiled prejudice that can negatively affect this population.

Another study we can cite is that of Shan et al. (2017), who examine sexual equity policies in organizations as a source of performance. The authors state that organizations with social responsibility policies have a positive image vis-à-vis their stakeholders and report that such policies include how to treat employees, clients, and investors.

5 Discussion

Human diversity refers to differences between individuals in specific key categories and is relevant to management and strategy research as they reveal crucial aspects of human behavior. Considering the two lines of research that predominate in human diversity studies, which present different focuses in their objectives, this research described the configuration of publications in these lines through the analysis of highly qualified journals.

In Line 1, theoretical-empirical studies of a quantitative nature are predominant in analyzing human diversity and performance variables. Moreover, much of the literature encourages heterogeneity in large organizations, as there seems to be an association between teams characterized by diversity and positive outcomes.

How do these categories influence organizational results and human behavior in organizations regarding performance, innovation, leadership style, and social responsibility actions?

In terms of practical implications for human resource management (HRM) and organizational behavior (OB), having a formal talent mobility program is critical to retaining top performers and upskilling the workforce to be more agile. Talent mobility is not merely moving people from one department to another but the ability to identify, develop, and deploy talent to meet the needs of the business. Building a culture of mobility can help the organization's health. The benefits are: cross-functional collaboration increases, departmental cooperation is enhanced, innovation improves, and companies begin working more as one cohesive team instead of as separate fiefdoms (Oakes, 2021), whether through demographic, psychological, or informational influences.

Of course, such findings cannot be generalized to small organizations, but it is notable that homogeneity may be more attractive in small groups, considering the importance of trust among peers.

The authors also point to the growing importance of collaborative work in organizations and, consequently, they highlight the relevance of dissemination of knowledge regarding the type and degree of informational diversity of different groups.

For HMR and OB, this is possible from learning-agile individuals. However, in times of change, leaders need to be more agile than ever. According to Mitchinson and Morris, "Adapting to new business strategies, working across cultures, dealing with temporary virtual teams, and taking on new assignments all demand that leaders be flexible and agile" (2014, p. 1). This includes having a growth mindset (Dweck, 2017) or "corresponding collection of practices that allow leaders to continually develop, grow, and utilize new strategies that will equip them for the increasingly complex problems they face in their organizations" (Mitchinson & Morris, 2014, p. 3). This involves five facets of learning agility: innovating (challenging the status quo); performing (remaining calm in the face of difficulty); reflecting (taking time to reflect on your own experiences); risking (putting yourself in challenging situations); and defending (being open to learning and resisting the temptation to become defensive in the face of adversity) (Mitchinson & Morris, 2014).

In Line 2, the focus is on issues of representation of minority groups in management positions and equity of treatment and remuneration among individuals in the work environment.

The authors state that organizations with social responsibility policies have a positive image vis-à-vis their stakeholders and report that such policies include how to treat employees, clients, and investors.

The implications for HMR and OB are to create psychological safety, creating cultures where knowledge and innovation thrive because people feel safe to contribute their ideas. This includes: setting the stage (framing the work, emphasizing purpose), inviting participation (practicing inquiry, setting up structure and processes), and responding productively (expressing appreciation, destigmatizing failure, sanctioning conduct violations) (Edmondson, 2020).

We observed a lower frequency of theoretical relationships between diversity and the decision-making process, leadership, identity, and innovation. Practical implications for HRM and OB include the need to consider that the company environment must be fertile, creating an environment where employees can express their untapped individual and collective potential. That is possible with the development of the concept of interculturality, addressing similarities, differences, inequalities, and disconnection. The distinction relates to cultural practices.

When thinking about differences in culture, Canclini (2004, p. 55) emphasizes that "[...] cultures have incommensurable nuclei or structures, not reducible to intercultural configurations without threatening the continuity of groups that identify with them." It is therefore necessary to recognize and protect these differences due to their cultural and political importance since it is only in marking a space for disagreements that their continuity and existence are made possible with acceptance and defining the human being in contemporary times.

In this context, it is necessary to include diversity in organizations so that we create intercultural subjects that are composed of the passage of different cultures. These countless representations are intertwined internally based on intersubjectivity, leaving traces of human diversity. These brands can integrate the diverse and the other alongside the exact and known, forming an "inter" subject in a world in motion, constantly coming and going (Weissmann, 2018).

As for Line 1, we suggest future research on human diversity in different organizational contexts, particularly small and medium-sized enterprises and multinational organizations. We also recommend research focused on knowledge management, human diversity, and the creation and maintenance of relationships between individuals. Finally, regarding Line 2, we suggest longitudinal analyses in organizations, focusing on the relationships between identity and work.

Research on organization façades can also help understand the conditions of representation of minorities in management positions. The presence of these groups, due to social pressure, is used only to highlight the image of the organizations before their stakeholders. In addition, research that focuses on stakeholder perceptions of organizations that adopt fair practices and policies can draw attention to the importance of this theme.

Without reference to particular empirical problems or specific domains, the theory of social movements articulated in different disciplines such as economics, politics, sociology, psychology, and communications, among others, uniting approaches with varying points of view and from different angles of comprehension of reality, could transform reality into potentiality, allowing novelty in the process, considering things as organic. This is especially true in Line 2, which shows interest in some specific aspects of individuals in organizations, to deepen the understanding of minority groups.

Both lines of study are essential because they highlight the importance of reflexivity or general insecurity regarding certainty in the production of knowledge about human diversity. By engaging in the process mentioned above in OS, it is possible to conduct scientific research – in the sense of methodological rigor and theoretical relevance – besides an acute sensitiveness analysis informed by reflexivity. We propose increasing reflexivity as a necessary attribute of critically informed organization studies: "The value of reflexivity lies in its capacity to foster thinking critically about the role and impact of values, beliefs, and actions on our resultant research" (Durepos et al., 2020, p. 6).

This context provides the fundamental basis for an illustration of the proposed discussion. We also developed four propositions about what we consider to be the most interesting implications of organizing as a critical element of the constitution of organizational reality.

Based on our objective and the bibliometric study showing the distribution between two lines of thought (age, gender, experience on the one hand, and specific social groups or minorities on the other), we argue that a better understanding of social movements as an expression of organizing can help in the comprehension of several empirical manifestations of an organizational nature. Social movements differ from stable, bureaucratic, formal organizations. They do not resemble an organization (substance, solid), their actors are not close together, and there is no frequency in their activities. Often in these movements, the participants act in cells (small groups), their interdependence is small, and they are constantly changing.

• P1. Diversity as a social movement implies conceptual and organizational dialogues by embracing notions such as mobilization and collective organizing with common interests open to new connections, considering the social, economic, political, and cultural environments.

Organizations as collectivities can be oriented to relatively specific goals and a somewhat formalized social structure, as well as those whose actors are little influenced by formal structures but share an interest in the survival of the system, and even unstable coalitions of interest groups that determine goals through a negotiation process (Scott, 1981). According to Della Porta and Diani (2006, p. 161), "A plurality of organizational models co-exist within any social movement […] not even the evolution of social movement organizations is unidirectional":

• P2. The organizing process of a social movement is the same one found in organizations, according to Scott's definitive treatment (1981), as described above, respectively: rational, natural, and open systems.

Studies of power, removed from traditional notions related to formal hierarchy and coalitions of power, for example, can boost processes in several directions as they appropriate the ideas of dynamic connectivity:

• P3. Social movements of human diversity demand participants to focus on particular aspects of power (force/creative energy) to select strategic incentives given to them and to select responses to political opportunities, with the possibility of creating new opportunities and affirming identity.

Finally, the social movements of diversity are always, by being alive and fluid, constituted of the actions of several actors that influence the discontinuous continuity of their organizing through what Hernes (2014) considers the relational process of organizations, with movements and active temporalities between past, continuous present, and future. This study illustrates the idea of belonging to and becoming with the world:

• P4. Social movement studies enable a new concept of organization as a complex, fluid, flexible, and interconnected moving organization, with plastic dynamics, considering its multiplicity and novelty in continuity.

These temporal dynamics of the phenomenon allow for the emergence of new relationships between actors and organizations, in a constant becoming of the organizing process, considering aspects related to the origin, continuity, and change of complex social phenomena of creating collective sensemaking for diversity.

6 Conclusion

Social movements have drawn the attention of researchers interested in understanding manifestations and implications of organizing as a critical element in the constitution of organizational reality; in our study, human diversity in management and strategy studies.

This is not an analytical path with a beginning, middle, and end, but a study process that other researchers have already followed. It is also a process of co-creating the phenomenon under study – which starts to acquire new meanings – and the creation of a new researcher, affected by the experience of comprehension and awareness. We hope that other researchers inspired by this study continue advancing and building theory based on the latest round of social movements that surround us today.

It is hoped that this work will contribute to future reflections on how the understanding of organizational performance concerning diversity and other issues in addition to gender, ethnicity, and age, have been conceptualized and studied in the field of organizational and strategic studies and provide new thoughts capable of stimulating future research and discussions on the subject. It is also expected to contribute to broader themes in incipient fields to legitimize the study and understanding of complex phenomena and the influence of diversity on the organizational context in which it occurs.

Theoretical and practical contributions of this study to this field of research include: process theorizing has significant but largely unfulfilled potential for combining human diversity in management and strategy studies because considering organizing as a process, instead of as a static entity, focuses on relationships of association or causality among the characteristics of social groups and other organization variables and the representation of minorities in the organizational context. In addition, they expand the scope of temporality to include the time experienced and the connection between multiple directions.

To face contemporary organizational phenomena such as diversity in human behavior in the organizational environment, we need to consider the dialogical connections with the knowledge generated in the theory of social movements. Social movements originate in social change; the nature of the social change that gives rise to the movement can affect the characteristics of social conflict and collective action in different ways. For example, it can facilitate the emergence of social groups with a specific location and specific potential interests. It can also reduce the importance of existing social structures or manifestations (Della Porta & Diani, 2006). Note also how movements, to sustain themselves over time, require some form of organization: leadership, administrative structure, incentives for participation, means to acquire resources, and support (Davis & Zald, 2005). Then the fundamental dynamics of collective action are shared between movements and organizations, and both face similar human resource challenges, such as recruitment, retention, socialization, and coordination. From an analytical process point of view, organizations and social movements share the intrinsic results of organizing: the emergence of boundaries that make them distinct from other organizations and movements. Organizing is fundamental to the performativity of the actors in the delimitation of these boundaries and the construction of identity – even if transitory – in the continuous process of becoming.

We finish the discussion by formulating valid propositions for the theoretical and methodological development of future organizational research on human diversity to demonstrate that an organization, characterized by complexity and uncertainty, is created by actors who will themselves be re-created by the organization in a recursive process, allowing us to creatively explore the variety in the research field of diversity.

• Evaluation process:

  Double Blind Review
• How to cite: Fonseca, P. H., Matitz, Q. R. S., & Chaerki, K. F. (2022). Human diversity in management and strategy studies: A bibliometric study. Revista Brasileira de Gestão de Negócios,24(3), p. 574-591. https://doi.org/10.7819/rbgn.v24i3.4190

• Financial support:

  Capes - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior.

• Copyrights:

  RBGN owns the copyrights of this published content. Plagiarism analysis: RBGN performs plagiarism analysis on all its articles at the time of submission and after approval of the manuscript using the iThenticate tool.
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Responsible Editor:

Prof. Gina Santos

Reviewers:

Carolina Machado; Márcia Duarte

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  10 Oct 2022
• Date of issue
  Jul-Sep 2022

History

• Received
  02 July 2020
• Accepted
  30 June 2022