Analysis of care and gender stereotypes in nursing scientific research: a scoping review

Mundim, Gabriela Duarte Almeida; Pires, Maria Raquel Gomes Maia; Torres, Maria Verônica Sousa; Silveira, Aline Oliveira

doi:10.1590/1980-220X-REEUSP-2024-0066en

Gabriela Duarte Almeida Mundim

Universidade de Brasília, Centro de Estudos Avançados Multidisciplinares, Brasília, DF, Brazil.

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4984-4541

Maria Raquel Gomes Maia Pires

Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Enfermagem, Brasília, DF, Brazil.

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7941-0816

Maria Verônica Sousa Torres

Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Enfermagem, Brasília, DF, Brazil.

https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9060-285X

Aline Oliveira Silveira

Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Enfermagem, Brasília, DF, Brazil.

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4470-7529

Corresponding author: Maria Raquel Gomes Maia Pires, Shin CA-5 bl-i ap 528 Ed. Saint Régis, Lago Norte, 71503-505 – Brasília, DF, Brazil, maiap@unb.br

ASSOCIATE EDITOR

Maria Helena Baena de Moraes Lopes

Database	Search string
Database	Exploratory	Improvement
SciELO	(ab:((Enfermagem OR Nursing OR Soins Infirmiéres OR Enferm) AND (Cuidado* OR Care OR Soins) AND (Gênero OR Gender OR Genero)))	(ab:((care OR practice) AND (gender) AND (nursing) AND (research OR studies)))
BDENF (Via VHL) in exploratory PubMed in improvement	((Enfermagem OR Nursing OR Soins Infirmiéres OR Enferm)) AND ((Cuidado* OR Care OR Soins)) AND ((Gênero OR Gender OR Genero)) Search limit: title, abstract, subject.	((care[Title/Abstract] OR practice[Title/Abstract]) AND (gender[Title/Abstract]) AND (nursing[Title/Abstract]) AND (research[Title/Abstract] OR studie[Title/Abstract]))
Scopus	(TITLE-ABS-KEY (enfermagem OR enfermagem OR soins AND infirmiéres OR enferm) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (cuidado* OR care OR soins) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (gênero OR gender OR genero))	(TITLE-ABS-KEY (care OR practice) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (gender) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (nursing) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (research OR studie))
CINAHL	AB (Enfermagem OR Nursing OR Soins Infirmiéres OR Enferm) AND AB (Cuidado* OR Care OR Soins) AND AB (Gênero OR Gender OR Genero)	AB (care OR practice) AND AB gender AND AB nursing AND AB (research OR studie)

ID	Title	Place and year	Objective	Participants	Methodology
S1	Learning to care: gender issues for male nursing students(¹⁵15. Paterson BL, Tschikota S, Crawford M, Saydak M, Venkatesh P, Aronowitz T. Learning to care: gender issues for male nursing students. Can J Nurs Res. 1996;28(1):25–39.)	Canada, 1996	Reveal similarities and differences in the experiences of male nursing students.	20 male nursing students	Qualitative research
S2	The concept of care in male nurse work(¹⁶16. Milligan F. The concept of care in male nurse work: an ontological hermeneutic study in acute hospitals. J Adv Nurs. 2001;35(1):7–16. doi: http://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01818.x. PubMed PMID: 11442677. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001... )	England, 2001	Analyze participants’ experiences and compare them with the literature on the concept of care in nursing practice.	8 male nurses	Qualitative research
S3	Politicidade do cuidado como referência emancipatória para a enfermagem (¹⁷17. Pires MRGM. Politicity of care as an emancipatory reference for nursing: getting to know to care better, delivering care to confront, delivering care to emancipate. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem. 2005;13(5):729–36. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-11692005000500018. PubMed PMID: 16308631. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-1169200500... )	Brazil, 2005	Theorize the politicity of care and point out disruptive dynamics for nursing based on the care triangle.	Not applicable	Theoretical reflection
S4	A questão do gênero no ensinar em enfermagem (¹⁸18. Amorim RD. Gender issue in Nursing teaching. Rev Enferm UERJ. 2009 [cited 2023 Mar 2];17(1):64–8. Available from: http://www.revenf.bvs.br/pdf/reuerj/v17n1/v17n1a12.pdf. http://www.revenf.bvs.br/pdf/reuerj/v17n... )	Brazil, 2009	Analyze the issue of gender in teaching care in nurse training.	21 female nurses, 13 from UEFS and 8 adult health professors	Qualitative research
S5	Nursing care from the perspective of ethics of care and of gender(¹⁹19. Burgos S, Cecilia B. Nursing care from the perspective of ethics of care and of gender. Invest Educ Enferm. 2013;31(2):243–51. doi: http://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.12105. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.12105... )	Colombia, 2013	Explore the ethical dimensions of concept and practice of care from a gender perspective.	11 nursing professionals (6 women and 5 men) who work at the Base Hospital in Valdivia, Chile	Qualitative research
S6	Sexualidade e a interseção com o cuidado na prática profissional de enfermeiras (²⁰20. Costa LH, Coelho ED. Sexuality and the intersection with caring in the nurse’s professional practice. Rev Bras Enferm. 2013;66(4):493–500. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-71672013000400005. PubMed PMID: 24008701. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-7167201300... )	Brazil, 2013	Analyze the intersection between sexuality and nursing care as a social practice.	09 nurses from Barbacena, Minas Gerais	Qualitative research
S7	A politicidade do cuidado na crítica aos estereótipos de gênero (¹1. Pires MRGM, Fonseca RMGS, Padilla B. A politicidade do cuidado na crítica aos estereótipos de gênero. Rev Bras Enferm. 2016;69(6):1223–30. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2016-0441. PubMed PMID: 27925101. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2016-0... )	Brazil, 2016	Analyze gender inequalities among Brazilian women in Portugal and in nursing.	Not applicable	Theoretical reflection
S8	Aportes del enfoque de género en la investigación de cuidadores primário (²¹21. Rangel Flores YY, Mendoza Hernández A, Hernández Ibarra LE, Cruz Ortiz M, Pérez Rodríguez M, Gaytán Hernández D. Contributions of gender in the investigation of primary caregivers of dependent people. Index Enferm. 2017 [cited 2023 Mar 2];26(3):157–61. Available from: https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1132-12962017000200008. https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?scri... )	Spain, 2017	Review studies that incorporate a gender focus in care.	Not applicable	Qualitative research
S9	La categoría de género en la investigación y producción de conocimiento en enfermería en Iberoamérica: aportes para el debate (²²22. Galindo Huertas MS, Herrera Giraldo SL. La categoría de género en la investigación y producción de conocimiento en enfermería en Iberoamérica: aportes para el debate. Ventana. 2017;5(46):177–201. doi: http://doi.org/10.32870/lv.v5i46.6041. https://doi.org/10.32870/lv.v5i46.6041... )	Mexico, 2017	Make gender biases or blindness visible in knowledge production in Ibero-American nursing.	Not applicable	Narrative review
S10	Ser mãe e enfermeira: questões sobre gênero e a sobreposição de papéis sociais (²³23. Rodrigues BC, de Lima MF, Neto BM, de Oliveira GL, de Paula Corrêa AC, Higarashi IH. Being a mother and a nurse: issues about gender and overlapping social roles. Rev Rene. 2017;18(1):91–8. doi: http://doi.org/10.15253/2175-6783.2017000100013. https://doi.org/10.15253/2175-6783.20170... )	Brazil, 2017	Describe the experiences of nursing mothers in reconciling their social roles.	10 nurse mothers	Qualitative research
S11	Cuidado ético do outro: contribuições de Edith Stein e Max Scheler (²⁴24. Alves VH, Barea R, Werneck VR, Grzibowski S, Rodrigues DP, Silva LA. Ethical care of the other: Edith Stein and Max Scheler’s contributions. Esc Anna Nery. 2018;22(2):e20170382. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/2177-9465-ean-2017-0382. https://doi.org/10.1590/2177-9465-ean-20... )	Brazil, 2018	Analyze Edith Stein’s empathy and Max Scheler’s sympathy for ethical care for others.	Not applicable	Theoretical reflection
S12	Emergencia del modelo de enfermería transmitido en las universidades españolas: una aproximación analítica a través de la Teoría Fundamentada (²⁵25. Pedrosa OR, Caïs J, Monforte-Royo C. Emergence of the nursing model transmitted in Spanish universities: an analytical approach through Grounded Theory. Cien Saude Colet. 2018;23(1):41–50. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232018231.21132017. PubMed PMID: 29267810. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232018231... )	Brazil, 2018	Know the meaning of the term nursing for teaching nurses at Spanish universities.	08 nurses teaching from Spanish universities (6 women and 2 men)	Qualitative research
S13	Entre o Estado, a sociedade e a família: o care das mulheres cuidadoras (²⁶26. Souza ID, Pereira JD, Silva EM. Between State, society and family: the care of female caregivers. Rev Bras Enferm. 2018;71(suppl 6):2720–7. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2018-0111. PubMed PMID: 30540049. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2018-0... )	Brazil, 2018	Investigate the care provided by family caregivers of dependent older adults and its social repercussions.	45 elderly caregivers (36 women and 9 men) supported in Home Care Services	Qualitative research
S14	Estructura y organización de las representaciones sociales del concepto cuidar (²⁷27. Olea-Gutiérrez CV, Zavala-Pérez IC, Salas-Medina DL, Rivas MX. Structure and organization of social representations of caring concept in caregivers of people with chronic disease. Rev Enferm Inst Mex Seguro Soc. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 2];26(3):161–70. Available from: https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/enfermeriaimss/eim-2018/eim183b.pdf. https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/enferme... )	Mexico, 2018	Analyze the structure and organization of social representations of the concept of caring in caregivers.	38 caregivers of people with chronic illnesses (21 women and 17 men)	Qualitative research
S15	Gender and informal care: different sense and meanings for men and women(²⁸28. Veras MP. Gender and informal care: different sense and meanings for men and women. Rev Enferm UFPI. 2019;8(1):11–6. doi: http://doi.org/10.26694/2238-7234.8111-16. https://doi.org/10.26694/2238-7234.8111-... )	Brazil, 2018	Examine the daily health care tasks of low-income women in northwest Córdoba.	56 low-income women	Qualitative research
S16	La cuidadora familiar: sentimiento de obligación naturalizado de la mujer (²⁹29. Ruiz IJ, Nicolás MM. The family caregiver: the naturalized sense of obligation in women to be caregivers. Enfermería Global. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 2]; 17(1):420–47. Available from: https://revistas.um.es/eglobal/article/view/292331/220741. https://revistas.um.es/eglobal/article/v... )	Spain, 2018	Make visible the role of family care restricted to women as part of gender roles motivated by a naturalized feeling of obligation.	09 female caregivers	Qualitative research
S17	Meaning of care before starting nursing professional training(³⁰30. Becerra AC, Tole MG, Escobar LM. Meaning of care before starting Nursing professional training. Revista Cubana de Educación Médica Superior. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 2]; 32(3):133–46. Available from: https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/educacion/cem-2018/cem183k.pdf. https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/educaci... )	Cuba, 2018	Interpret the meaning of care for nursing students.	06 students enrolled in the first semester of nursing (4 women and 2 men)	Qualitative research
S18	The effect of gender role orientation on student nurses’ caring behaviour and critical thinking(³¹31. Liu NY, Hsu WY, Hung CA, Wu PL, Pai HC. The effect of gender role orientation on student nurses’ caring behaviour and critical thinking. Int J Nurs Stud. 2019;89:18–23. doi: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.09.005. PubMed PMID: 30316956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.... )	England, 2018	Explore the impact of gender roles on critical thinking and caring practices of nursing students.	449 nursing students who had at least one month of experience in clinical practice (310 women and 139 men)	Quantitative research
S19	Perception of caring among nursing students: Results from a cross-sectional survey(³²32. Trinidad MF, Pascual JL, García MR. Perception of caring among nursing students: results from a cross-sectional survey. Nurse Educ Today. 2019;83:104196. doi: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2019.08.014. PubMed PMID: 31479980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2019.08.0... )	Scotland, 2019	Analyze the perception of care among Spanish nursing students.	321 Spanish nursing students (200 women, 88 men, 33 no responses)	Quantitative research
S20	Resistência e resignação: narrativas de gênero na escolha da enfermagem (³³33. Macedo RM. Resistance and resignation: gender narratives in the choice of Nursing and education. Cadernos Pesquisa. 2019;49:54–76. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/198053145992. https://doi.org/10.1590/198053145992... )	Brazil, 2020	Analyze narratives about the process of choosing higher studies of female students enrolled in nursing and pedagogy courses.	21 female university students from nursing, pedagogy and administration courses at private HEIs in São Paulo	Qualitative research
S21	The effect of gender-friendliness barriers on perceived image in nursing and caring behaviour among male nursing students(³⁴34. Hung CA, Wu PL, Liu NY, Hsu WY, Lee BO, Pai HC. The effect of gender-friendliness barriers on perceived image in nursing and caring behaviour among male nursing students. J Clin Nurs. 2019;28(9–10):1465–72. doi: http://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.14693. PubMed PMID: 30358000. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.14693... )	England, 2019	Examine the relationships between nursing image, caring behaviors, and gender barriers experienced by male nursing students.	141 male nursing students who obtained at least 1 month of clinical practice experience	Quantitative research
S22	Burden and Gender inequalities around Informal Care(³⁵35. Cascella Carbó GF, García-Orellán R. Burden and gender inequalities around informal care. Invest Educ Enferm. 2020;38(1). doi: http://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.v38n1e10. PubMed PMID: 32124578. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.v38n1e... )	Colombia, 2020	Understand the consequences of informal care for caregivers in a debate from a gender perspective.	Not applicable	Narrative review
S23	Paying the Caring Tax: The Detrimental Influences of Gender(⁷7. Burton CW. Paying the caring tax: the detrimental influences of gender expectations on the development of nursing education and science. ANS Adv Nurs Sci. 2020;43(3):266–77. doi: http://doi.org/10.1097/ANS.0000000000000319. PubMed PMID: 32732607. https://doi.org/10.1097/ANS.000000000000... )	USA, 2020	Analyze gender inequalities arising from moral impositions on nurses’ care in the workplace.	Not applicable	Theoretical essay
S24	Sentidos do cuidado para acadêmicos de enfermagem (³⁶36. Garcia FR, Rendón DD, Nazareth JB, Amorim TV, Arreguy-Sena C, Salimena AM. Directions for Nursing academics towards care: Heideggerian contributions to education. Rev Pesqui. 2020 [cited 2023 Mar 2]; 318–23. Available from: http://seer.unirio.br/index.php/cuidadofundamental/article/view/6977/pdf. http://seer.unirio.br/index.php/cuidadof... )	Brazil, 2020	Identify meanings of care for nursing students.	13 nursing students from the last period of graduation at a College of Nursing (no gender specification)	Qualitative research
S25	Que não seja aquela enfermagem que pede silêncio (³⁷37. Rabelo AR, Silva KL. Let it not be that nursing that asks for silence: participation in social movements and sociopolitical-emancipatory knowledge. Rev Bras Enferm. 2022;75(4):e20210630. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2021-0630. PubMed PMID: 35442312. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2021-0... )	Brazil, 2022	Analyze nurses’ sociopolitical knowledge in social movements.	6 female nurses involved in social movements and with political representation	Qualitative research

“Natural caregiver” stereotype reissue	“Natural caregiver” stereotype criticism
S1: The study reinforces conceptions of binary gender restricted to two forms of care: a ‘masculine’ one, allegedly learned by male students; another ‘feminine’, supposedly natural for women. S1: “Freshman students […] admit that they learned aspects of care that ‘came naturally’ to their female colleagues […] An honest assessment of how women in nursing defined care as women’s work is needed […]”.(¹⁵15. Paterson BL, Tschikota S, Crawford M, Saydak M, Venkatesh P, Aronowitz T. Learning to care: gender issues for male nursing students. Can J Nurs Res. 1996;28(1):25–39.)	S3: The thesis of the centrality of the political dimension of care is defended. It is argued in favor of a new logic of care, where assistance is exercised that, being power, both subjugates and emancipates. S3: “The politicity of care resides in the intrinsic ambivalence of help which, being power, both dominates and liberates human actions. […] It is about politicizing the social practice of nursing in the rich spaces where it operates, sharing decisions and expanding the debate around differences.”(¹⁷17. Pires MRGM. Politicity of care as an emancipatory reference for nursing: getting to know to care better, delivering care to confront, delivering care to emancipate. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem. 2005;13(5):729–36. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-11692005000500018. PubMed PMID: 16308631. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-1169200500... )
S2: The proposed conceptual model of care ratifies sexist gender stereotypes, namely, a more emotional profile for female nurses, in relation to the physical strength and virility of male nurses. S2: “Authors point out that a gender link is often made between care and femininity and that, increasingly, this is seen as necessary to transmit care to students”(¹⁶16. Milligan F. The concept of care in male nurse work: an ontological hermeneutic study in acute hospitals. J Adv Nurs. 2001;35(1):7–16. doi: http://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01818.x. PubMed PMID: 11442677. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001... )	S4: Gender stereotypes related to care are evidenced and criticized in the speeches of teaching nurses, with directions for problematizing these issues in nursing training and practice. S4: “Understanding the relationships established between men and women who provide care will contribute to possible ruptures within nursing, which is undergoing a process of naturalization of its work, seen as an extension of domestic activities carried out by women.”(¹⁸18. Amorim RD. Gender issue in Nursing teaching. Rev Enferm UERJ. 2009 [cited 2023 Mar 2];17(1):64–8. Available from: http://www.revenf.bvs.br/pdf/reuerj/v17n1/v17n1a12.pdf. http://www.revenf.bvs.br/pdf/reuerj/v17n... )
S5: The study reproduces ideologies, moral values and gender segregation in the discourses of men and women in nursing regarding the ethics of care, with total erasure of inequalities. S5: “The ethics of care has positive characteristics that only human beings with a spirit of service can guarantee. Furthermore, there is no distinction of gender, ideology or race, which makes care a call to serve”.(¹⁹19. Burgos S, Cecilia B. Nursing care from the perspective of ethics of care and of gender. Invest Educ Enferm. 2013;31(2):243–51. doi: http://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.12105. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.12105... )	S6: Discusses the transversality of sexuality in nurses’ ways of caring. It reflects on nurses’ difficulties in dealing with situations that do not conform to heteronormativity. S6: “In the public space, the profession was, since the beginning of its institutionalization […], subjected to the strong scheme of neutralization of bodies and prohibition of sexuality. Christian morality, which even opened space for the belief in the nurse as an asexual angel, contributed enormously to the denial of nurses’ erotic body.”(²⁰20. Costa LH, Coelho ED. Sexuality and the intersection with caring in the nurse’s professional practice. Rev Bras Enferm. 2013;66(4):493–500. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-71672013000400005. PubMed PMID: 24008701. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-7167201300... )
S10: The research describes the reconciliation between professional and family life of women nurses who are mothers, without, however, criticizing gender injustices arising from the overload of care work. S10: “In this professional practice, many components of the way of relating and the way of being feminine are mixed, which means that sensitivity and personal involvement with the suffering of others end up emerging within the scope of their professional activity […]”.(²³23. Rodrigues BC, de Lima MF, Neto BM, de Oliveira GL, de Paula Corrêa AC, Higarashi IH. Being a mother and a nurse: issues about gender and overlapping social roles. Rev Rene. 2017;18(1):91–8. doi: http://doi.org/10.15253/2175-6783.2017000100013. https://doi.org/10.15253/2175-6783.20170... )	S7: The politicity of care supported comparative analyzes of stereotypes of Brazilian Eves and Portuguese Marias with the sexualized or sanctified nurse. The gender inequalities of Brazilian women in Portugal and nurses are part of the Jewish-Christian morality that reiterates the subservience of the feminine to the masculine. S7: “One of these stereotypes that crystallize the imagination of women […] is the one that insists on designating them as a natural caregiver who, due to their feminine nature, would be destined to take full responsibility for care activities.”(¹1. Pires MRGM, Fonseca RMGS, Padilla B. A politicidade do cuidado na crítica aos estereótipos de gênero. Rev Bras Enferm. 2016;69(6):1223–30. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2016-0441. PubMed PMID: 27925101. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2016-0... )
S11: Conception of care as a gesture of “love” full of moral and religious values present in the historicity of nursing, without questioning. S11: “Both Stein’s empathy and Scheler’s sympathy are closely linked to our human action as an act of perceiving the experiences of others, and [...] lead the sympathetic or empathizing human being to care for others with love.”(²⁴24. Alves VH, Barea R, Werneck VR, Grzibowski S, Rodrigues DP, Silva LA. Ethical care of the other: Edith Stein and Max Scheler’s contributions. Esc Anna Nery. 2018;22(2):e20170382. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/2177-9465-ean-2017-0382. https://doi.org/10.1590/2177-9465-ean-20... )	S8: The systematic review identified weaknesses in the problematization of gender issues in 20 (57%) of the 35 (100%) articles that set out to analyze the relationship between care, gender and health. S8: “This situation requires problematizing the gender social order within a patriarchal context in which care is seen as a function associated with the domestic and highly feminized space”.(²¹21. Rangel Flores YY, Mendoza Hernández A, Hernández Ibarra LE, Cruz Ortiz M, Pérez Rodríguez M, Gaytán Hernández D. Contributions of gender in the investigation of primary caregivers of dependent people. Index Enferm. 2017 [cited 2023 Mar 2];26(3):157–61. Available from: https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1132-12962017000200008. https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?scri... )
S12: The authors identify and confirm in the speeches of nursing professors’ conservative ideologies, moral values and gender stereotypes that reinforce social injustices in the profession. S12: “Nursing can also be considered a quality that some people possess innately that leads to a special predisposition, called vocation, to help others [...] it is defined as a human activity linked to women and related to motherhood, the care of children and human survival. This maternal instinct is what provides the motivation and drive necessary to care”.(²⁵25. Pedrosa OR, Caïs J, Monforte-Royo C. Emergence of the nursing model transmitted in Spanish universities: an analytical approach through Grounded Theory. Cien Saude Colet. 2018;23(1):41–50. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232018231.21132017. PubMed PMID: 29267810. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232018231... )	S9: The review analyzes 104 nursing articles based on feminist epistemology. Gender prejudices and blindness are evident in scientific nursing research from countries in South America, Central America and Europe. S9: “This is one of the greatest problems in research […]: considering terms or concepts as invariable and fixed constructs. Especially in the profession, we must review the relationship between care and gender, in order to expand the fields of reading and open paths for alternative understandings of what apparently has not changed for so many years”.(²²22. Galindo Huertas MS, Herrera Giraldo SL. La categoría de género en la investigación y producción de conocimiento en enfermería en Iberoamérica: aportes para el debate. Ventana. 2017;5(46):177–201. doi: http://doi.org/10.32870/lv.v5i46.6041. https://doi.org/10.32870/lv.v5i46.6041... )
S14: Systematizes representations of informal caregivers who associate care with love, family, affection, protection or an acquired mission, reproducing the ideologies and gender stereotypes present in nursing. S14: “Caring for a sick person is a situation that women and men have experienced at some point in their lives, and that they naturally and spontaneously take responsibility, devote time and effort to others who cannot care for themselves due to age, illness, disability, or disability to meet their needs”.(²⁷27. Olea-Gutiérrez CV, Zavala-Pérez IC, Salas-Medina DL, Rivas MX. Structure and organization of social representations of caring concept in caregivers of people with chronic disease. Rev Enferm Inst Mex Seguro Soc. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 2];26(3):161–70. Available from: https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/enfermeriaimss/eim-2018/eim183b.pdf. https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/enferme... )	S13: The research reflects on the relevance of women caregivers for society and their invisibility for public policies, based on the care category, originating from feminist epistemology. S13: “[…] It is necessary to change the representation according to which the skills mobilized in care work are equal or a mere extension of the domestic functions socially attributed to women”.(²⁶26. Souza ID, Pereira JD, Silva EM. Between State, society and family: the care of female caregivers. Rev Bras Enferm. 2018;71(suppl 6):2720–7. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2018-0111. PubMed PMID: 30540049. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2018-0... )
S15: The experiences of female caregivers are naturalized and essentialized, without critical reflection on gender issues. S15: “Women have learned the role of caregivers through years of socialization and have honed their skills by participating in the daily care of their children.”(²⁸28. Veras MP. Gender and informal care: different sense and meanings for men and women. Rev Enferm UFPI. 2019;8(1):11–6. doi: http://doi.org/10.26694/2238-7234.8111-16. https://doi.org/10.26694/2238-7234.8111-... )	S21: It reflects on the implications of gender issues in the choice of nursing and pedagogy courses, resulting in professional devaluation. Ambiguities between resignation and resistance in students’ speeches point to perspectives for confronting injustices. S21: “In nursing […] feminization persists ‘both in university qualifications and at secondary and technical levels’ […] Thus, in the case of feminized health professions, the relationship between ‘care’ and ‘feminine action’ remains, in a process that naturalizes these differences as attributed to females”.(³³33. Macedo RM. Resistance and resignation: gender narratives in the choice of Nursing and education. Cadernos Pesquisa. 2019;49:54–76. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/198053145992. https://doi.org/10.1590/198053145992... )
S16: The study highlights the unequal division and precariousness of care work in the families surveyed, highlighting gender issues. However, it does not sufficiently problematize inequities, preferring to label as “superwomen” those who fully take on the multiple tasks. S16: “The term ‘superwoman’ […] perfectly defines these caregivers, who work hard to maintain multiple roles, including those of personal development, often interrupted due to an excessive workload […]”.(²⁹29. Ruiz IJ, Nicolás MM. The family caregiver: the naturalized sense of obligation in women to be caregivers. Enfermería Global. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 2]; 17(1):420–47. Available from: https://revistas.um.es/eglobal/article/view/292331/220741. https://revistas.um.es/eglobal/article/v... )	S22: The research reflects on the overload of care tasks for women, resulting in gender injustices. Highlights the need to democratize responsibility for care within the scope of public health policies and the role of nursing in change processes. S22: “The fact that care has been, and continues to be, considered a topic within the feminine sphere, reinforces gender stereotypes about the role of men and women in society [...] Breaking with the roles socially designated for women in care could be the change that allows for a different distribution of care work.”(³⁵35. Cascella Carbó GF, García-Orellán R. Burden and gender inequalities around informal care. Invest Educ Enferm. 2020;38(1). doi: http://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.v38n1e10. PubMed PMID: 32124578. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.iee.v38n1e... )
S17: The research systematizes biological determinisms, religious values and gender stereotypes into four possible subthemes identified for care: survival instinct; female gaze; nursing; relationship with a higher being. S17: “[…] For this specific scenario, women stand out as recipients of care teaching-learning, highlighting that this social function is practically exclusive to them due to their ability to procreate”.(³⁰30. Becerra AC, Tole MG, Escobar LM. Meaning of care before starting Nursing professional training. Revista Cubana de Educación Médica Superior. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 2]; 32(3):133–46. Available from: https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/educacion/cem-2018/cem183k.pdf. https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/educaci... )	S23: It questions the reproduction of gender stereotypes in the maternal behaviors of nursing professors at universities, trapped in a veiled moral obligation of care. The reinforcement of gender roles is problematized based on feminist epistemology. S23: “Hegemonic femininity in nursing can be identified as the imposition of behavioral norms associated with the feminine […] often resulting in horizontal oppression. […] The imposition of ostensibly feminine behaviors can arouse ‘maternal’ expectations of women in the workplace”.(⁷7. Burton CW. Paying the caring tax: the detrimental influences of gender expectations on the development of nursing education and science. ANS Adv Nurs Sci. 2020;43(3):266–77. doi: http://doi.org/10.1097/ANS.0000000000000319. PubMed PMID: 32732607. https://doi.org/10.1097/ANS.000000000000... )
S18: Quantitative correlational study that reinforces, without question, the inferiority of female nursing students in relation to men, presumably more prone to critical thinking. S18: “In this study, students’ femininity was positively associated with caring behavior. There was no significant correlation, however, between femininity and critical thinking […] those who reported greater masculinity displayed greater caring behavior and critical thinking than their fewer male counterparts.”(³¹31. Liu NY, Hsu WY, Hung CA, Wu PL, Pai HC. The effect of gender role orientation on student nurses’ caring behaviour and critical thinking. Int J Nurs Stud. 2019;89:18–23. doi: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.09.005. PubMed PMID: 30316956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.... )	S25: Nursing care is conceived as a political practice influenced by participation in social movements to combat inequalities in the profession. S25: “In the context of health services, some oppressive, silencing practices that blame, judge and victimize, especially other women, and romanticized family care are narrated as recurring […] Due to these characteristics, the care offered is understood as inadequate and harmful”.(³⁷37. Rabelo AR, Silva KL. Let it not be that nursing that asks for silence: participation in social movements and sociopolitical-emancipatory knowledge. Rev Bras Enferm. 2022;75(4):e20210630. doi: http://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2021-0630. PubMed PMID: 35442312. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2021-0... )
S19: Two factors were extracted that summarize undergraduate students’ conceptions of care: the first, psychosocial, the second, technical-professional. Psychosocial is associated with women, without statistical significance, with no questioning of gender stereotypes. S19: “Regarding the influence of gender, among the women surveyed, five of the six dimensions most identified with care were related to the psychosocial aspect, and this may lead us to think that women are more concerned with relational and contextual aspects.”(³²32. Trinidad MF, Pascual JL, García MR. Perception of caring among nursing students: results from a cross-sectional survey. Nurse Educ Today. 2019;83:104196. doi: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2019.08.014. PubMed PMID: 31479980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2019.08.0... )
S20: A descriptive cross-sectional study that assumes care as a feminine attribute. Therefore, male nursing students would have difficulties in clinical practice. This association between female care and a negative image of nursing is ratified as alleged essentialized self-evidence. S20: “Several researchers have found that male nursing students encounter more challenges in the clinical setting than female students […], primarily because nursing combines professional and feminine values of caring”.(³⁴34. Hung CA, Wu PL, Liu NY, Hsu WY, Lee BO, Pai HC. The effect of gender-friendliness barriers on perceived image in nursing and caring behaviour among male nursing students. J Clin Nurs. 2019;28(9–10):1465–72. doi: http://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.14693. PubMed PMID: 30358000. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.14693... )
S24: The research reinforces gender violence in the profession’s scientific discourse, with stereotypes full of moralizations of care, seen as a gesture of altruism, love and affection. S24: “The way of caring for others is revealed when one cares about putting themselves in the other’s shoes, giving love and affection”.(³⁶36. Garcia FR, Rendón DD, Nazareth JB, Amorim TV, Arreguy-Sena C, Salimena AM. Directions for Nursing academics towards care: Heideggerian contributions to education. Rev Pesqui. 2020 [cited 2023 Mar 2]; 318–23. Available from: http://seer.unirio.br/index.php/cuidadofundamental/article/view/6977/pdf. http://seer.unirio.br/index.php/cuidadof... )

[1] Corresponding author: Maria Raquel Gomes Maia Pires, Shin CA-5 bl-i ap 528 Ed. Saint Régis, Lago Norte, 71503-505 – Brasília, DF, Brazil, maiap@unb.br

Brasil

Brasil

Analysis of care and gender stereotypes in nursing scientific research: a scoping review

Análisis de los cuidados y estereotipos de género en la producción científica de enfermería: revisión del alcance

ABSTRACT

Objective:

Method:

Results:

Conclusion: