Parameters controlling the expansive behavior of bentonite-kaolin mixtures stabilized with alkali-activated waste

Abstract

Expansive soils can cause large-scale damage to the infrastructure. Soil stabilization with Portland cement and lime has been widely utilized as a solution to this problem. However, these stabilizers are non-renewable and energy-intensive. Alkali-activated binders are alternatives with lower carbon dioxide emissions. This research evaluated an expansive soil stabilization with an alkali-activated binder produced from sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), hydrated eggshell lime (HEL) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Free-swelling tests alongside a statistical analysis evaluated the influence of dry unit weight (12.5 and 14.5 kN/m³), binder (4 and 10%) and moisture content (19.7 and 24.7%) and curing time (0 and 7 days) on the stabilized mixtures. A four factors factorial design with duplicates and central points was outlined. To better understand the NaOH and SCBA influence over the soil expansion additional tests were performed. In general, an increase on the studied factors reduced swelling, especially binder content. However, the alkali-activated cement presented no clear correlation between higher density and higher expansion. Swell reduced from 13.8% (12.5 kN/m³ and 19.7% moisture) and 8.8% (12.5 kN/m³ and 24.7% moisture) to 2.5% and 0%, respectively, after 7 days and 10% binder addition for the alkaline cement. For Portland cement, swell reduced from 13.8% (10.2 kN/m³ and 22.5% moisture) and 12.5% (10.2 kN/m³ and 27.5% moisture) to 1.8% and 1%, respectively, after 7 days and 4% binder addition. Samples containing NaOH expanded less than samples molded with only water. Finally, the alternative binder might be a viable option to replace Portland cement for expansion control.

Keywords:
Sugarcane bagasse ash; Hydrated eggshell lime; Alkaline cement; Expansive soils; Swelling

1. Introduction

Expansive soils suffer considerable volume changes upon the variation of their water content (Consoli et al., 2021; Ferreira et al., 2013; Silvani et al., 2023; Tonini de Araújo et al., 2021). The magnitude of volume change depends on several factors, e.g. mineralogy, type of clay, clay content, and exchangeable ions (Yang et al., 2020), and cause large-scale damage to infrastructure (e.g. roads, buildings, foundations) resulting in economic and safety issues (Gaspar et al., 2022; Yaghoubi et al., 2021). Common solutions to these issues are soil replacement and soil stabilization; due to lower costs associated to the latter, soil stabilization is often preferred in engineering practice (Buhler & Cerato, 2007).

The stabilization of expansive soils with cementing agents such as ordinary Portland cement (OPC) (Abdelkrim & Mohamed, 2013; Ahmadi Chenarboni et al., 2021; Mahedi et al., 2018; Sahoo & Prasad Singh, 2022) and lime (Boobalan & Sivakami Devi, 2022; Dang et al., 2016; Indiramma et al., 2020; James, 2020; James et al., 2022; Khadka et al., 2020) has been widely explored. However, these conventional stabilizers are energy-intensive materials, generate significant amounts of CO₂, and possess high costs associated with their production processes (Burris et al., 2015; Gartner & MacPhee, 2011; Zhang et al., 2020). Thus, alternative materials and/or techniques for expansive soils stabilization are needed.

Alkali-activated materials are alternatives to conventional cementing agents. These binders present lower carbon dioxide emissions compared to lime and cement (Zhang et al., 2020) and incorporate several industrial and agro-industrial wastes, such as: sugarcane bagasse ash (Bruschi et al., 2021b, 2022); carbide lime (Carvalho Queiróz et al., 2022; Pereira dos Santos et al., 2022; Queiróz et al., 2022); ground glass waste (Secco et al., 2021), fly ash (Miranda et al., 2020; Goldoni et al., 2023), eggshell residue (Ferrazzo et al., 2023a, b; Levandoski et al., 2023) and, rice husk ash (Pelissaro et al., 2023). Alkali-activation is the chemical reaction between an amorphous/semi-crystalline aluminosilicate source and an alkaline activator, generating gel similar to the ones formed in OPC hydration (Duxson et al., 2007).

Past research has been conducted on the use of alkali-activation for the stabilization of problematic soils (Parhi et al., 2018; Phougat, 2015; Samuel et al., 2020; Syed et al., 2020, 2022; Žurinskas et al., 2020). Nevertheless, a research gap exists regarding the application of alkali-activated waste materials to control expansive soils swelling. Thus, this research analyzed the stabilization of an expansive soil by an alkali-activated binder composed by sugarcane bagasse ash and eggshell lime. Free-swelling tests were performed on soil-alkali activated binder samples and a statistical analysis evaluated the influence of studied factors (e.g. curing period) on swelling results.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Materials and characterization

The materials used in this research were (i) bentonite, (ii) kaolin, (iii) sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), (iv) hydrated eggshell lime (HEL), and (v) sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The sodium bentonite is classified as CH (inorganic clay of high plasticity) and kaolin as CL (inorganic clay of low plasticity) in accordance with USCS (ASTM, 2020). The SCBA was obtained from a local supplier in southern Brazil. HEL was produced from the calcination of eggshells obtained in bakeries. Specifications of the lime production process can be found in Tonini de Araújo et al. (2021). The alkali-activator was NaOH (micro pearls, 98% purity). The materials physical characterization is presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Physical properties of the materials.

Physical properties	Standard/Equipment	Materials
		Bentonite (BT)	Kaolin (K)	SCBA	HEL
Unit weight of grains (g.cm-3)	ASTM D854 (ASTM, 2014a); NBR 16605 (ABNT, 2017)	2.75	2.61	2.08	2.24
Liquid limit, LL (%)	ASTM D4318 (ASTM, 2017)	501	43	-	-
Plastic limit, PL (%)	ASTM D4318 (ASTM, 2017)	66	13	-	-
Plasticity index, PI (%)	ASTM D4318 (ASTM, 2017)	436	30	-	-
% of coarse sand	ASTM D7928 (ASTM, 2021)	0	0	-	-
% of medium sand	ASTM D7928 (ASTM, 2021)	0	0	-	-
% of fine sand	ASTM D7928 (ASTM, 2021)	6	4	-	-
% of silt	ASTM D7928 (ASTM, 2021)	30	67	-	-
% of clay	ASTM D7928 (ASTM, 2021)	64	29	-	-
Main particle diameter, D50 (µm)	Laser diffraction particle size analyzer (CILAS, model 1064)	-	-	31.01	7.43
Specific surface area (m2.g-1)	QuantaChrome equipment (model NOVA 1200e)	-	-	125.15	4.18
Pozzolanic activity index (mg Ca(OH)2/g of pozzolan)	NBR 15895 (ABNT, 2010)	-	-	817.6	-

Bentonite consists of 64.74% SiO₂, 13.25% Al₂O₃, smectite, and quartz minerals. Kaolin consists of 52.50% SiO₂, 31.75% Al₂O₃, and kaolinite mineral (Consoli et al., 2021). SCBA consists of 60.65% SiO₂, 13.87% Fe₂O₃, 5.76% Al₂O₃, quartz, hematite, and magnetite minerals (Bruschi et al., 2021a). HEL consists of CaO (72.90%), portlandite, calcite, and magnesium minerals (Consoli et al., 2020).

Previously developed and characterized by Tonini de Araújo et al. (2023a), the alkali-activated binder was composed by 80% SCBA and 20% HEL, 1M NaOH solution (2.61% Na₂O), and water/binder rate equal to 0.8.

Modified Proctor tests (ASTM D1557 (ASTM, 2012)) were performed for bentonite-kaolin-SCBA-HEL samples to define the dry unit weight and moisture content of the mixtures (Figure 1). Bentonite-kaolin proportion of 10/90 was established to simulate an expansive soil. The compaction curves resulted in the following maximum dry unit weights and optimum moisture contents: 14.50 kN/m³ and 27.60% (soil), 12.50 kN/m³ and 24.70% (soil-10% binder). The moulding points represent the dry unit weight and respective moisture content applied to the tested samples as described in item 2.2.

Figure 1
Compaction curves.

2.2 Experimental design

A four factors factorial design with duplicates (24) and central points (i.e. 36 tests) was outlined for this study. Analyzed factors were dry unit weight (A), binder content (B), moisture content (C), and curing time (D). The experimental runs are shown in Table 2.

Table 2
Experimental design.

Treatment	γd (kN/m3)	Binder content (%)	Moisture content (%)	Curing time (days)
1; 17	12.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	19.7	0
2; 18	14.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	19.7	0
3; 19	12.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	19.7	0
4; 20	14.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	19.7	0
5; 21	12.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	24.7	0
6; 22	14.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	24.7	0
7; 23	12.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	24.7	0
8; 24	14.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	24.7	0
9; 25	12.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	19.7	0
10; 26	14.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	19.7	7
11; 27	12.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	19.7	7
12; 28	14.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	19.7	7
13; 29	12.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	24.7	7
14; 30	14.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	24.7	7
15; 31	12.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	24.7	7
16; 32	14.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	24.7	7
33; 34; 35; 36	13.5	7+ (5.6% SCBA + 1.4% HEL)	22.2	3.5

To better understand the sodium hydroxide and SCBA influence over the soil expansion additional tests were performed, as described in Table 3. These tests entailed samples with soil and isolated materials.

Table 3
Additional tests.

Test	γd (kN/m3)	Binder content (%)	Moisture content (%)	Curing time (days)
Soil + H2O	12.5	-	19.7	0
Soil + H2O	14.5	-	19.7	0
Soil + H2O	12.5	-	24.7	0
Soil + H2O	14.5	-	24.7	0
Soil + NaOH	12.5	-	19.7	0
Soil + NaOH	14.5	-	19.7	0
Soil + NaOH	12.5	-	24.7	0
Soil + NaOH	14.5	-	24.7	0
SCBA + Soil + H2O	12.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	19.7	0
SCBA + Soil + H2O	14.5	4% (3.2% SCBA + 0.8% HEL)	19.7	0
SCBA + Soil + H2O	12.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	19.7	0
SCBA + Soil + H2O	14.5	10% (8% SCBA + 2% HEL)	19.7	0
SCBA +H2O	-	-	19.7	-
SCBA +H2O	-	-	24.7	-

2.3 Molding and curing of soil-binder samples

From Proctor results (Figure 1) the maximum γd adopted was 14.5 kN/m³ (maximum γd of the soil-10% binder curve) and the minimum 12.5 kN/m³. For moisture content, the optimum content of 24.7% was the maximum adopted value, and 19.7% the minimum. The binder contents of 10% and 4% were chosen following previous researches (Consoli et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2013).

The dry unit weight determined the dry mass of materials; after materials weighing, bentonite, kaolin, SCBA, and HEL were mixed, followed by NaOH solution and distilled water addition. The added NaOH solution was defined from an optimum 2.61% alkali content value obtained from SCBA-HEL-NaOH pastes. Additional water aimed to reach the moisture content of the mixture. Next, each sample was statically compacted in a single layer inside a ring (71.33 mm in diameter, 25 mm high). Finished the molding process, each specimen was weighed and specimens suitable for testing met the following tolerances: γd within ± 1% of target value, and moisture content within ± 0.5% of target value. Then, samples were stored in a plastic bag to avoid humid loss and cured in a humid chamber (23 ±2°C and 95% moisture).

2.4 One-dimensional swell test

The one-dimensional swelling test followed standard ASTM D4546 (ASTM, 2014b), Method A. Each specimen was allocated in a modified odometer cell, with top and bottom saturated porous stones and filter papers, and preloaded by a 1kPa top cap. Next, specimens were inundated using distilled water (20 ± 2°C). A LVDT device coupled to a data acquisition system measured swell at time intervals of 30 s, 1 min, 2 min, 4 min, 8 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 8 h, 24 h, and 48 h following the aforementioned standard. The swell percentage is then measured (Equation 1):

${\epsilon }_s=\frac{\Delta H}{H_0}\times 100$ (1)

Where ∆H is the specimen height change (mm) and H₀ is the initial specimen height (i.e. the ring height of 25mm).

2.5 pH tests

The pH of soil-NaOH and soil-water samples was measured in accordance with ASTM D4972 (ASTM, 2013).

3. Results and discussions

Figure 2 shows the free swelling results. Figure 2a presents the mean of the duplicates for each treatment. For comparison with a traditional binder, swelling results for the same soil stabilized by high initial strength Portland cement (type III) (Consoli et al., 2021) are shown in Figure 2b. Although in the later factors values are different from the ones in this study (Table 4), factors influence over swelling results are compared for both binders. Figure 3 presents the Pareto chart and the main effects plot and Figure 4 shows free swelling results over time.

Figure 2
Free swelling: (a) soil-alkali-activated binder, (b) soil-Portland cement (Consoli et al., 2021).

Table 4
Experimental run for the swelling tests of soil-Portland cement samples.

Treatment	γd (kN/m3)	Binder content (%)	Moisture content (%)	Curing time (days)
1	10.2	0	22.5	0
2	12.2	0	22.5	0
3	10.2	4	22.5	0
4	12.2	4	22.5	0
5	10.2	0	27.5	0
6	12.2	0	27.5	0
7	10.2	4	27.5	0
8	12.2	4	27.5	0
9	10.2	0	22.5	7
10	12.2	0	22.5	7
11	10.2	4	22.5	7
12	12.2	4	22.5	7
13	10.2	0	27.5	7
14	12.2	0	27.5	7
15	10.2	4	27.5	7
16	12.2	4	27.5	7
17	11.2	2	25.0	3.5

Figure 3
Free swelling statistical results: (a) Pareto chart for the soil-alkali-activated binder, (b) Pareto chart for the soil-Portland cement, (c) mean effects plot for the soil-alkali-activated binder, (d) mean effects plot for the soil-Portland cement.

Figure 4
Free swelling results over time for samples containing (a) soil and water; (b) soil and NaOH; (c) SCBA, soil and water; and (d) only SCBA.

According to Figure 2, a higher moisture content decreased swell. This is due a decrease in suction effects with higher soil saturation, and, consequently, a reduction in soil affinity for water adsorption, as acknowledge by Fattah et al. (2017). In soil-Portland cement samples (0% and 4% cement addition) an increase in density led to higher expansion, as samples that are more compact have lower porosity and less available volume for particles to rearrange after swelling. Also, as stated by Silvani et al. (2020) higher densities result in higher expansion due to expansive soil particles higher concentration. For soil-alkali activated binder samples, there is not a clear correlation between higher density and higher expansion. However, alkali-activated samples with higher binder content showed a reduction in swell at higher density values. This is because the significant presence of NaOH in high-density low-binder content samples controlled swelling due to decrease in the bentonite diffuse double layer in the electrolyte nature (Reddy & Sivapullaiah, 2010).

In general, for both binders a higher curing time and binder content resulted in lower swelling, the exception being 4% binder content-7 days curing time alkali-activated samples. In the later, the precipitation of cementitious compounds (e.g. C-A-S-H and C-(N)-A-S-H gels) was not sufficient to counterbalance the bentonite (Figure 4a) and SCBA (Figure 4d) swell during the curing period (i.e. SCBA and bentonite swell disturbed the development of reaction products). However, in 10% binder content-7 days curing alkali-activated samples the precipitation of gels was higher. Thus, these products solidified, preventing bentonite and SCBA expansion during the curing period and after sample’s submersion (e.g. treatments 15 and 16, Figure 2a, had almost no swell).

Swell reduced from 13.8% (12.5 kN/m³ and 19.7% moisture) and 8.8% (12.5 kN/m³ and 24.7% moisture) to 2.5% (82% reduction) and 0% (100% reduction), respectively, after 7 curing days and 10% binder addition for the alkali-activated binder. Syed et al. (2020) found similar results for an expansive clayey soil stabilized with fly ash activated by sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate: the swell percentage decreased 62% with 10% binder addition. For Portland cement, swell reduced from 13.8% (10.2 kN/m³ and 22.5% moisture) and 12.5% (10.2 kN/m³ and 27.5% moisture) to 1.8% (86% reduction) and 1% (92% reduction), respectively, after 7 curing days and 4% binder addition (Consoli et al., 2021).

In the Pareto chart, horizontal bars represent the effect magnitudes of each factor and bars exceeding the vertical line represent factors with significant influence over the response variable. The Pareto chart of alkali-activated samples (Figure 3a) shows that the binder content (B), second order interaction BD (binder content and curing time), and moisture content (C) posses, in this order, higher influence over swelling. For Portland cement (Figure 3b), the binder content (B), dry unit weight (A), and second order interaction AB possess, in this order, more influence over swelling. For both binders, the binder content (B) has more influence over swelling. This is mainly due to the precipitation of reaction products. Also, after the addition of those binders in soil, the pH of the environment increases leading to Ca²⁺ release and cationic exchange between Na⁺ and Ca²⁺. The cation exchange followed by flocculation-agglomeration and pozzolanic reactions result in the formation of a coarse fabric which prevents swelling (Mitchell & Soga, 2005; Soltani et al., 2017).

For the main effects plot, the dotted line corresponds to the mean response of the tests, and line steepness is the effect intensity. Figure 3c,d shows that an increase on mean factors binder content, moisture content, and curing time reduced swelling. The higher line steepness of binder content denotes the higher influence of this factor. The middle points attest a non-linear behavior of the mean factors. In addition, for studied variables both binders presented a similar mean swell result (10%).

Figure 4 entails additional tests and corroborates previous conclusions; Figure 4b shows that samples containing NaOH expanded less than samples molded with only water (Figure 4a). This is explained by an increase in the pH in soil-NaOH samples (pH = 14) compared to soil-water samples (pH = 8.57). The pH increase might change the bentonite edge-face charge sign reducing soil fabric dispersion due to particle aggregation (Fan et al., 2013). In addition, a higher amount of cation in the environment, i.e. Na⁺ from NaOH, causes shrinkage of the mineral’s double-diffusion layer and flocculation of soil particle reducing swelling (Mitchell & Soga, 2005). Figure 4c shows that 4% SCBA-12.5 kN/m³-19.7% moisture content (pink line) and 10% SCBA-14.5 kN/m³-19.7% moisture content (blue line) soil samples, had a similar swell rate to soil-NaOH samples with same moisture content and density (pink and green lines of Figure 4b, respectively). However, other samples in Figure 4c swelled more than soil-NaOH samples with same moisture content and density. This is explained by Figure 4d: the SCBA swells over time.

4. Conclusion

This paper analyzed the swelling behavior of an expansive soil stabilized by an alkali-activated binder. Soil-Portland cement swell behavior was compared to the aforementioned binder. Free swelling tests and statistical analyses were performed. For both binders, the binder content had more influence over swelling. In addition, an increase on the main factors (binder content, moisture content, and curing time) reduced swelling. However, contrary to Portland cement specimens, soil-alkali activated binder samples no presented a clear correlation between higher density and higher expansion.

The significant presence of NaOH in high-density low-binder content alkali-activated samples controlled swelling; and soil-NaOH samples expanded less than samples molded with only distilled water. This is because pH increase might change the bentonite edge-face charge sign reducing soil fabric dispersion due to particle aggregation. For Portland cement, cementation of soil particles due to cement hydration reactions was the main responsible for swell reduction. For studied samples, swell reduced 100% and 91% with 10% alkali-activated binder and 4% Portland cement additions, respectively. Thus, aiming at swell reduction, Portland cement can be replaced by the alkaline binder, considering conditions similar to this study.

Although extensive research has been reported on the use of alkali-activation for soft soils (e.g. Abdullah et al., 2020; Cristelo et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2016; Phetchuay et al., 2016; Tonini de Araújo et al., 2023b; Zhang et al., 2013), few studies explored the use of these binders for swelling control. This study contributes to the literature by analyzing the use of alkali-activated wastes binder (SCBA and recycled eggshell) for a clayey soil stabilization. The utilized precursor expanded over time, and the activator controlled swelling. Thus, the influence of materials composing the alkali-activation binder on swelling should be carefully analyzed before any decision-making regarding soil stabilization.

List of symbols and abbreviations

pH pH of soil-NaOH and soil-water samples

A Dry unit weight

AB Dry unit weight and binder content

B Binder content

BD Binder content and curing time

BT Bentonite

C Moisture content

CH Inorganic clay of high plasticity

CL Inorganic clay of low plasticity

CNPq Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico

D Curing time

D₅₀ Main particle diameter

H₀ Initial specimen height

HEL Hydrated eggshell lime

K Kaolin

LL Liquid limit

OPC Ordinary Portland cement

PL Plastic limit

PI Plasticity index

S Degree of saturation

SCBA Sugarcane bagasse ash

USCS United soil classification system

∆H Specimen height change

${\epsilon }_s$ Swell percentage

γ_d Density

Data availability

The datasets generated analyzed in the course of the current study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Acknowledgements

The present work was supported by CNPq - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – Brazil.

• Discussion open until February 28, 2025.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  08 July 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  19 Sept 2023
• Accepted
  12 Apr 2024