Transferências de plantas em uma perspectiva histórica: o estado da discussão*

Beinart, William; Midleton, Karen

doi:10.1590/2237-101X010019010

Resumos

Este artigo explora algumas rotas dentro da história da transferência de plantas, especialmente durante o período do imperialismo europeu. Tenta extrair conhecimento de diferentes campos de pesquisa, que geralmente não estão justapostos, tecendo em conjunto perspectivas advindas de disciplinas contrastantes. Não pretende oferecer uma história completa, pois tal seria uma tarefa muito mais complexa. Tentamos incluir deliberadamente plantas cultivadas para a agricultura, plantas de jardim, ervas daninhas e plantas invasoras na mesma estrutura de análise, pois é difícil definir algumas espécies apenas dentro de uma dessas categorias culturalmente construídas. O artigo desenvolve três pontos principais. Primeiramente, ele levanta questões sobre o padrão assimétrico de transferência de plantas durante o período imperialista, consequentemente desafiando algumas das proposições presentes no livro Ecological imperialism, de Alfred Crosby. Em segundo lugar, avaliamos a literatura recente com relação à história da botânica e das instituições botânicas e sugerimos que uma área mais ampla de atuação humana necessita ser considerada, assim como as transferências acidentais, se quisermos mapear e compreender os movimentos globais das espécies de plantas. Em terceiro lugar, argumentamos que, na busca de generalizações sobre os padrões de transferência, os cientistas têm se concentrado em demasia nas propriedades das plantas e os historiadores, no entendimento das instituições políticas e econômicas. A construção de uma história global, assim como de histórias de plantas específicas, requer uma combinação de percepções e pesquisas advindas das ciências exatas, sociais e humanas.

transferências de plantas; história ambiental; imperialismo ecológico.

This paper explores some routes into the history of plant transfers, especially during the period of European imperialism. It attempts to draw on different bodies of research, which are not usually juxtaposed, and weave together perspectives from contrasting disciplines. It does not pretend to offer a history, which is a much more complex task. We have deliberately tried to include cultivated crops, garden plants, weeds and plant invaders within the same frame of analysis, because it is so difficult to define some species within any one of these culturally constructed categories. The paper develops three main points. Firstly, it raises questions about the asymmetrical pattern of plant transfers during imperialism, thus challenging some of the propositions offered in Crosby's Ecological Imperialism. Secondly, we evaluate recent literature on the history of botany and botanical institutions and suggest that a broader range of human agency needs to be considered, as well as accidental transfers, if the global trajectories of plant species are to be mapped and comprehended. And thirdly, we argue that in pursuit of generalizations about patterns of transfer, scientists have concentrated too much on plant properties, and historians on understanding political economy or institutions. A global history, as well as particular plant histories, requires a combination of insights and research from sciences, social sciences and humanities.

plant transfers; environmental history; ecological imperialism.

Texto completo disponível apenas em PDF.

Full text available only in PDF format.

1
Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years (London: Vintage, 1998).
2
Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Edição revista, Canto, 1993).
3
Michael A. Osborne, Nature, The Exotic, and the Science of French Colonialism (Bloomington, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994), 166.
4
Lucile Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens (New York, London: Academic Press, 1979); Mauro Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1350-1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000).
5
Ver a nota n° 4; outros exemplos recentes incluem N. Jardine, J. A. Secord e E. C. Spary (eds.), Cultures of Natural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Stephen J. Pyne, Vestal Fire: An Environmental History, Told through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter with the World (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997); Tom Griffiths e Libby Robin (eds.), Ecology and Empire: Environmental History of Settler Societies (Edinburgh: Keele University Press, 1997); Paul Slack (ed.), Environments and Historical Change: the Linacre Lectures (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); John McNeill, Something New Under the Sun: an Environmental History of the Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 2000).
6
Edward O. Wilson, Consilience: the Unity of Knowledge (London: Abacus, 1999).
7
⁷ Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 164.
8
⁸ Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 165.
9
Edgar Anderson em Plants, Man and Life (London: Andrew Melrose, 1954), 19, observou esse ponto a respeito das plantas mediterrâneas na Califórnia.
10
Quentin C. B. Cronk e Janice L. Fuller, Plant Invaders: The Threat to Natural Ecosystems (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and London: Chapman and Hall, 1995).
11
Tim Flannery, The Future Eaters (London: Secker and Warburg, 1996) e "The Fate of Empire in Low and High-Energy Ecosystems", em Griffiths and Robin (eds.), Ecology and Empire.
12
A ideia de uma vegetação nativa mais densa, como consequência da redução populacional dos ameríndios, é sugerida por Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, colonists and slaves in South Atlantic forests, 1500-1800(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
13
Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, segunda edição, xiv.
14
A. W. Crosby, "The demographic effect of American crops in Europe", em M. E. Sharpe (ed.) Germs, Seeds, and Animals: Studies in Ecological History (New York: Armonk, 1994), 148-166.
15
Radcliffe Salaman, The History and Social Influence of the Potato(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1949; edição revista, 1985).
16
Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Penguin, 1986).
17
B. R. Tomlinson, "Empire of the Dandelion: Ecological Imperialism and Economic Expansion, 1860-1914", Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 26, 2 (1998), 89.
18
Lynn Barber, The Heyday of Natural History, 1820-1870 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1980); W. Blunt, The Art of Botanical Illustration(London: Collins, 1950); Jardine, Secord and Spray (eds.) Cultures of Natural History.
19
Anna Pavord, The Tulip (London: Bloomsbury, 1999).
20
Sobre habitats "abertos" e "fechados", ver Anderson, Plants, Life and Man, 127; ver também Charles Elton, The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants (London: Methuen, 1958; republicada em 1977).
21
Mark Williamson, Biological Invasions (London: Chapman and Hall, 1996).
22
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 54.
23
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 70.
24
Elton, The Ecology of Invasions.
25
I. A. W. MacDonald, F. J. Kruger e A. A. Ferrar (eds.), The Ecology and Management of Biological Invasions in Southern Africa (Oxford University Press, Cape Town, 1986).
26
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 77.
27
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 30; ver também F. di Castri, "History of biological invasions with special emphasis on the old world", em J. A. Drake, H. A. Mooney, F. di Castri, R. H. Groves, F. J. Kruger, M. Rejmánek e M. Williamson (eds.), Biological Invasions: A Global Perspective(Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989), 1-30.
28
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 30.
29
Radcliffe Salaman, Influence of the Potato; Mintz, Sweetness and Power; Marvin P. Miracle, Maize in Tropical Africa(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966).
30
Pavord, The Tulip; Mark Pendergrast, Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World (New York: Basic Books, 1999); Mark Kurlansky, Cod: a Biography of the Fish that Changed the World (London: Jonathan Cape, 1998), uma das publicações mais bem sucedidas neste campo.
31
Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994); S. G. Harrison et.al., The Oxford Book of Food Plants (London: Peerage Books, 1985); Kenneth F. Kiple e K.C Ornelas (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Food (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
32
Mary Lousie Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992); Peter Raby, Bright Paradise: Victorian Scientific Travellers (London: Chatto and Windus, 1996).
33
Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion.
34
Grove, Green Imperialism, 93.
35
Drayton, Nature's Government, 122.
36
Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown.
37
Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown, 109.
38
Drayton, Nature's Government, 160.
39
Richard Grove, Vinita Damodoran e Satpal Sangwan (eds.), Nature and the Orient: the Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press 1998).
40
Osborne, Science of French Colonialism.
41
Auguste Hardy, "Importance de l'Algérie comme station d'acclimatation", extraído de L'Algérie agricole, commerciale, industrielle (Paris, 1860), 7. Cited 145, n.1.
42
William Storey, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1997).
43
Warren Dean, Brazil and the Struggle for Rubber: A Study in Environmental History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
44
G. Shaughnessy, "A case study of some woody plant introductions to the Cape Town area", em MacDonald et. al., Biological Invasions in Southern Africa, 37-43.
45
W. Beinart, The Rise of Conservation in South Africa: Settlers, Livestock and the Environment, 1770-1950 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), capítulo 8.
46
M. Miracle, Agriculture in the Congo Basin: Tradition and Change in African Rural Economy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966); Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990).
47
Karen Middleton, "The Ironies of Plant Transfer", em W. Beinart e J. McGregor (eds.), Social History and African Environments (Oxford: James Currey, 2003).
48
Annette Kolodny, The Land Before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630-1860 (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1984).
49
William Gervase Clarence-Smith e François Ruf (eds.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800: The Role of Smallholders, Planters and Merchants (London: Macmillan, 1996).
50
Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion, 36.
51
Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food, 130.
52
Mintz, Sweetness and Power.
53
Emmanuel Kreike, "Hidden Fruits: a Social Ecology of Fruit Trees in Namibia and Angola, 1880s-1990s", em Beinart e McGregor (eds.), Social History and African Environments.
54
Miracle, Maize in Tropical Africa, 60; Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown.
55
Anderson, Plants, Man and Life, 99-104.
56
Lance van Sittert, "The Seed Blows About in Every Breeze: Noxious Weed Eradication in the Cape Colony, 1860-1909", Journal of Southern African Studies, 26, 4 (2000), 655-674.
57
MacDonald et. al., Biological Invasions in Southern Africa, 26.
58
Esta ideia é sugerida em Ernst van Jaarsveld, "Shaped by Suffering: Veld and Flora", Journal of the Botanical Society of South Africa, 87, 1 (2001), 16-19 através de uma breve comparação entre as plantas do leste e do oeste do Cabo. Gerânio, crássula, espada-de-são jorge, clorófito são citadas como exemplos. Sima Eliovson, South African Wild Flowers for the Garden (Cape Town: Howard Timmins, 1960).
59
E. Mayr, "Introduction", em H. G. Baker e G. L. Stebbins (eds.), The Genetics of Colonizing Species (New York: Academic Press, 1965).
60
Elton, The Ecology of Invasions, 1, 15, 61.
61
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 1-2, 30.
62
R. W. Allard, "Genetic Systems Associated with Colonizing Ability in Predominantly Self-Pollinated Species", em Baker e Stebbins (eds.), The Genetics of Colonizing Species, 49.
63
Cronk e Fuller, Plant Invaders, 1.
64
Karen Middleton, "Who killed 'Malagasy Cactus'? Science, Environment and Colonialism in Southern Madagascar (1924-1930)", Journal of Southern African Studies, 25, 2 (1999), 215-248.
65
Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 149.
66
Para a combinação entre culturas agrícolas e ervas daninhas, ver J. R. Harlan e J. M. J. de Wet, "Some thoughts about we-eds", Economic Botany 19 (1965), 16-24.
67
Middleton, "The Ironies of Plant Transfer".
68
Elizabeth Croll e David Parkin, "Cultural understandings of the environment", em E. Croll e D. Parkin (eds.), Bush Base, Forest Farm: Culture, Environment and Development (London: Routledge, 1992).
69
Claude Lévi-Strauss, "The use of wild plants in tropical South America", em J. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 6, Physical Anthropology, Linguistics, and Cultural geography of South American Indians (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1950), 465. William Balée, "The Culture of Amazonian Forests", em Darrell Posey e Willaim Balée (eds.), Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies Advances in Economic Botany, vol. 7 (Bronx: New York Botanical Garden), 1989, 1-21; W. Balée, "Indigenous transformation of Amazonian forests: An example from Maranhão, Brazil", L'Homme, 33 (1993), 231-254; D. Posey, "Indigenous management of tropical forest ecosystems: the case of the Kayapó Indians of the Brazilian Amazon", Agroforestry Systems, 3 (1985), 139-158.
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Laura Rival, "Domestication as a historical and symbolic process: wild gardens and cultivated forests in the Ecuadorian Amazon", em William Balée (ed.), Advances in Historical Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 244.
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Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown, 2.
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Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown, 102, 110.
73
Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown, 96.
74
Crosby, Germs, Seeds; Ester Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: the Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure (London: Allen and Unwin, 1965); ver também Mary Tiffen, Michael Mortimore, e Francis Gichuki, More People, Less Erosion: Environmental Recovery in Kenya (Chicester: John Wiley & Sons, 1994).
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Michael Watts, Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).
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Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique 1938-61 (Oxford: James Currey, 1996); Allen Isaacman e Richard Roberts (eds.), Cotton, Colonialism and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa (Oxford: James Currey, 1996).
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A. Fiona D. MacKenzie, Land, Ecology, and Resistance in Kenya, 1880-1952 (International Africa Institute: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).
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Miracle, Maize in Tropical Africa.
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Polly Hill, Studies in Rural Capitalism in West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); A Hopkins, An Economic history of West Africa (London: Longman, 1973); Robert H. Bates, Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Michael Mortimore, Roots in the African Dust: Sustaining the Drylands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
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Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent; The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Subsaharan Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993).
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David J. Parkin, Palms, Wine and Witnesses: Public Spirit and Private Gain in an African Farm Community (London: Chandler, 1972).
82
Raymond Dumett, "The Rubber Trade of the Gold Coast and Asante in the Nineteenth Century: African Innovation and Market Responsiveness", Journal of African History, 12, 1 (1971), 79-101; Kwame Arhin, "The Ashanti Rubber Trade with the Gold Coast in the Eighteen-Nineties", Africa, 42, 1 (1972), 32-43; Berry, No Condition is Permanent.
83
Hopkins, History of West Africa; Clarence-Smith e Ruf (eds.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts.
84
Johan Iskandar e Roy F. Ellen "The Contribution of Paraserianthes (Albizia) falcataria to Sustainable Swidden Management Practices Among the Baduy of West Java", Human Ecology, 28 (2000), 1-17.
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Henry Bernstein e Philip Woodhouse, "Telling Environmental Change Like It Is?", Journal of Agrarian Change, 1 (2001), 283324; Ramachandra Guha e J. Martinez Alier, Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays North and South (London: Earthscan, 1997).
86
Cronk e Fuller, Plant Invaders.
87
M. Douglas, "Deciphering a meal", Daedalus, 101 (1972): 61-82; John Brewer e Roy Porter (eds.), Consumption and the World of Goods(London: Routledge, 1993); Para o caso das flores, ver Pavord, The Tulip e Jack Goody, The Culture of Flowers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
88
J. Rousseau, "Des colons qui apportent avec eux leur ideologie", em Jacques Barrau e Jacqueline Thomas (eds.), Langues et techniques, nature et société, vol 2. (Paris: Klincksieck, 1972).
89
Ann Laura Stoler, "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31 (1989), 134-161; Ann Laura Stoler e Frederick Cooper (eds.), Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

Datas de Publicação

Publicação nesta coleção
Dez 2009

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License

[1] 1
Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years (London: Vintage, 1998).

[2] 2
Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Edição revista, Canto, 1993).

[3] 3
Michael A. Osborne, Nature, The Exotic, and the Science of French Colonialism (Bloomington, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994), 166.

[4] 4
Lucile Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens (New York, London: Academic Press, 1979); Mauro Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1350-1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000).

[5] 5
Ver a nota n° 4; outros exemplos recentes incluem N. Jardine, J. A. Secord e E. C. Spary (eds.), Cultures of Natural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Stephen J. Pyne, Vestal Fire: An Environmental History, Told through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter with the World (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997); Tom Griffiths e Libby Robin (eds.), Ecology and Empire: Environmental History of Settler Societies (Edinburgh: Keele University Press, 1997); Paul Slack (ed.), Environments and Historical Change: the Linacre Lectures (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); John McNeill, Something New Under the Sun: an Environmental History of the Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 2000).

[6] 6
Edward O. Wilson, Consilience: the Unity of Knowledge (London: Abacus, 1999).

[7] 7
⁷ Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 164.

[8] 8
⁸ Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 165.

[9] 9
Edgar Anderson em Plants, Man and Life (London: Andrew Melrose, 1954), 19, observou esse ponto a respeito das plantas mediterrâneas na Califórnia.

[10] 10
Quentin C. B. Cronk e Janice L. Fuller, Plant Invaders: The Threat to Natural Ecosystems (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and London: Chapman and Hall, 1995).

[11] 11
Tim Flannery, The Future Eaters (London: Secker and Warburg, 1996) e "The Fate of Empire in Low and High-Energy Ecosystems", em Griffiths and Robin (eds.), Ecology and Empire.

[12] 12
A ideia de uma vegetação nativa mais densa, como consequência da redução populacional dos ameríndios, é sugerida por Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, colonists and slaves in South Atlantic forests, 1500-1800(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

[13] 13
Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, segunda edição, xiv.

[14] 14
A. W. Crosby, "The demographic effect of American crops in Europe", em M. E. Sharpe (ed.) Germs, Seeds, and Animals: Studies in Ecological History (New York: Armonk, 1994), 148-166.

[15] 15
Radcliffe Salaman, The History and Social Influence of the Potato(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1949; edição revista, 1985).

[16] 16
Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Penguin, 1986).

[17] 17
B. R. Tomlinson, "Empire of the Dandelion: Ecological Imperialism and Economic Expansion, 1860-1914", Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 26, 2 (1998), 89.

[18] 18
Lynn Barber, The Heyday of Natural History, 1820-1870 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1980); W. Blunt, The Art of Botanical Illustration(London: Collins, 1950); Jardine, Secord and Spray (eds.) Cultures of Natural History.

[19] 19
Anna Pavord, The Tulip (London: Bloomsbury, 1999).

[20] 20
Sobre habitats "abertos" e "fechados", ver Anderson, Plants, Life and Man, 127; ver também Charles Elton, The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants (London: Methuen, 1958; republicada em 1977).

[21] 21
Mark Williamson, Biological Invasions (London: Chapman and Hall, 1996).

[22] 22
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 54.

[23] 23
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 70.

[24] 24
Elton, The Ecology of Invasions.

[25] 25
I. A. W. MacDonald, F. J. Kruger e A. A. Ferrar (eds.), The Ecology and Management of Biological Invasions in Southern Africa (Oxford University Press, Cape Town, 1986).

[26] 26
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 77.

[27] 27
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 30; ver também F. di Castri, "History of biological invasions with special emphasis on the old world", em J. A. Drake, H. A. Mooney, F. di Castri, R. H. Groves, F. J. Kruger, M. Rejmánek e M. Williamson (eds.), Biological Invasions: A Global Perspective(Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989), 1-30.

[28] 28
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 30.

[29] 29
Radcliffe Salaman, Influence of the Potato; Mintz, Sweetness and Power; Marvin P. Miracle, Maize in Tropical Africa(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966).

[30] 30
Pavord, The Tulip; Mark Pendergrast, Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World (New York: Basic Books, 1999); Mark Kurlansky, Cod: a Biography of the Fish that Changed the World (London: Jonathan Cape, 1998), uma das publicações mais bem sucedidas neste campo.

[31] 31
Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994); S. G. Harrison et.al., The Oxford Book of Food Plants (London: Peerage Books, 1985); Kenneth F. Kiple e K.C Ornelas (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Food (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

[32] 32
Mary Lousie Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992); Peter Raby, Bright Paradise: Victorian Scientific Travellers (London: Chatto and Windus, 1996).

[33] 33
Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion.

[34] 34
Grove, Green Imperialism, 93.

[35] 35
Drayton, Nature's Government, 122.

[36] 36
Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown.

[37] 37
Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown, 109.

[38] 38
Drayton, Nature's Government, 160.

[39] 39
Richard Grove, Vinita Damodoran e Satpal Sangwan (eds.), Nature and the Orient: the Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press 1998).

[40] 40
Osborne, Science of French Colonialism.

[41] 41
Auguste Hardy, "Importance de l'Algérie comme station d'acclimatation", extraído de L'Algérie agricole, commerciale, industrielle (Paris, 1860), 7. Cited 145, n.1.

[42] 42
William Storey, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1997).

[43] 43
Warren Dean, Brazil and the Struggle for Rubber: A Study in Environmental History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

[44] 44
G. Shaughnessy, "A case study of some woody plant introductions to the Cape Town area", em MacDonald et. al., Biological Invasions in Southern Africa, 37-43.

[45] 45
W. Beinart, The Rise of Conservation in South Africa: Settlers, Livestock and the Environment, 1770-1950 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), capítulo 8.

[46] 46
M. Miracle, Agriculture in the Congo Basin: Tradition and Change in African Rural Economy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966); Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990).

[47] 47
Karen Middleton, "The Ironies of Plant Transfer", em W. Beinart e J. McGregor (eds.), Social History and African Environments (Oxford: James Currey, 2003).

[48] 48
Annette Kolodny, The Land Before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630-1860 (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1984).

[49] 49
William Gervase Clarence-Smith e François Ruf (eds.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800: The Role of Smallholders, Planters and Merchants (London: Macmillan, 1996).

[50] 50
Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion, 36.

[51] 51
Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food, 130.

[52] 52
Mintz, Sweetness and Power.

[53] 53
Emmanuel Kreike, "Hidden Fruits: a Social Ecology of Fruit Trees in Namibia and Angola, 1880s-1990s", em Beinart e McGregor (eds.), Social History and African Environments.

[54] 54
Miracle, Maize in Tropical Africa, 60; Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown.

[55] 55
Anderson, Plants, Man and Life, 99-104.

[56] 56
Lance van Sittert, "The Seed Blows About in Every Breeze: Noxious Weed Eradication in the Cape Colony, 1860-1909", Journal of Southern African Studies, 26, 4 (2000), 655-674.

[57] 57
MacDonald et. al., Biological Invasions in Southern Africa, 26.

[58] 58
Esta ideia é sugerida em Ernst van Jaarsveld, "Shaped by Suffering: Veld and Flora", Journal of the Botanical Society of South Africa, 87, 1 (2001), 16-19 através de uma breve comparação entre as plantas do leste e do oeste do Cabo. Gerânio, crássula, espada-de-são jorge, clorófito são citadas como exemplos. Sima Eliovson, South African Wild Flowers for the Garden (Cape Town: Howard Timmins, 1960).

[59] 59
E. Mayr, "Introduction", em H. G. Baker e G. L. Stebbins (eds.), The Genetics of Colonizing Species (New York: Academic Press, 1965).

[60] 60
Elton, The Ecology of Invasions, 1, 15, 61.

[61] 61
Williamson, Biological Invasions, 1-2, 30.

[62] 62
R. W. Allard, "Genetic Systems Associated with Colonizing Ability in Predominantly Self-Pollinated Species", em Baker e Stebbins (eds.), The Genetics of Colonizing Species, 49.

[63] 63
Cronk e Fuller, Plant Invaders, 1.

[64] 64
Karen Middleton, "Who killed 'Malagasy Cactus'? Science, Environment and Colonialism in Southern Madagascar (1924-1930)", Journal of Southern African Studies, 25, 2 (1999), 215-248.

[65] 65
Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 149.

[66] 66
Para a combinação entre culturas agrícolas e ervas daninhas, ver J. R. Harlan e J. M. J. de Wet, "Some thoughts about we-eds", Economic Botany 19 (1965), 16-24.

[67] 67
Middleton, "The Ironies of Plant Transfer".

[68] 68
Elizabeth Croll e David Parkin, "Cultural understandings of the environment", em E. Croll e D. Parkin (eds.), Bush Base, Forest Farm: Culture, Environment and Development (London: Routledge, 1992).

[69] 69
Claude Lévi-Strauss, "The use of wild plants in tropical South America", em J. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 6, Physical Anthropology, Linguistics, and Cultural geography of South American Indians (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1950), 465. William Balée, "The Culture of Amazonian Forests", em Darrell Posey e Willaim Balée (eds.), Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies Advances in Economic Botany, vol. 7 (Bronx: New York Botanical Garden), 1989, 1-21; W. Balée, "Indigenous transformation of Amazonian forests: An example from Maranhão, Brazil", L'Homme, 33 (1993), 231-254; D. Posey, "Indigenous management of tropical forest ecosystems: the case of the Kayapó Indians of the Brazilian Amazon", Agroforestry Systems, 3 (1985), 139-158.

[70] 70
Laura Rival, "Domestication as a historical and symbolic process: wild gardens and cultivated forests in the Ecuadorian Amazon", em William Balée (ed.), Advances in Historical Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 244.

[71] 71
Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown, 2.

[72] 72
Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown, 102, 110.

[73] 73
Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown, 96.

[74] 74
Crosby, Germs, Seeds; Ester Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: the Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure (London: Allen and Unwin, 1965); ver também Mary Tiffen, Michael Mortimore, e Francis Gichuki, More People, Less Erosion: Environmental Recovery in Kenya (Chicester: John Wiley & Sons, 1994).

[75] 75
Michael Watts, Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).

[76] 76
Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique 1938-61 (Oxford: James Currey, 1996); Allen Isaacman e Richard Roberts (eds.), Cotton, Colonialism and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa (Oxford: James Currey, 1996).

[77] 77
A. Fiona D. MacKenzie, Land, Ecology, and Resistance in Kenya, 1880-1952 (International Africa Institute: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).

[78] 78
Miracle, Maize in Tropical Africa.

[79] 79
Polly Hill, Studies in Rural Capitalism in West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); A Hopkins, An Economic history of West Africa (London: Longman, 1973); Robert H. Bates, Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Michael Mortimore, Roots in the African Dust: Sustaining the Drylands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

[80] 80
Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent; The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Subsaharan Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993).

[81] 81
David J. Parkin, Palms, Wine and Witnesses: Public Spirit and Private Gain in an African Farm Community (London: Chandler, 1972).

[82] 82
Raymond Dumett, "The Rubber Trade of the Gold Coast and Asante in the Nineteenth Century: African Innovation and Market Responsiveness", Journal of African History, 12, 1 (1971), 79-101; Kwame Arhin, "The Ashanti Rubber Trade with the Gold Coast in the Eighteen-Nineties", Africa, 42, 1 (1972), 32-43; Berry, No Condition is Permanent.

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Hopkins, History of West Africa; Clarence-Smith e Ruf (eds.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts.

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Johan Iskandar e Roy F. Ellen "The Contribution of Paraserianthes (Albizia) falcataria to Sustainable Swidden Management Practices Among the Baduy of West Java", Human Ecology, 28 (2000), 1-17.

[85] 85
Henry Bernstein e Philip Woodhouse, "Telling Environmental Change Like It Is?", Journal of Agrarian Change, 1 (2001), 283324; Ramachandra Guha e J. Martinez Alier, Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays North and South (London: Earthscan, 1997).

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Cronk e Fuller, Plant Invaders.

[87] 87
M. Douglas, "Deciphering a meal", Daedalus, 101 (1972): 61-82; John Brewer e Roy Porter (eds.), Consumption and the World of Goods(London: Routledge, 1993); Para o caso das flores, ver Pavord, The Tulip e Jack Goody, The Culture of Flowers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

[88] 88
J. Rousseau, "Des colons qui apportent avec eux leur ideologie", em Jacques Barrau e Jacqueline Thomas (eds.), Langues et techniques, nature et société, vol 2. (Paris: Klincksieck, 1972).

[89] 89
Ann Laura Stoler, "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31 (1989), 134-161; Ann Laura Stoler e Frederick Cooper (eds.), Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

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Transferências de plantas em uma perspectiva histórica: o estado da discussão*

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