A comparative study of Mencius’s thoughts through human nature and harmonyAbstract:
This article focuses on Mencius’ concepts of human nature and harmony, aiming to explore the intrinsic connection between the two and their implications for contemporary ethics, morality and social harmony. This article first provides a detailed analysis of Mencius’ theory of human nature, pointing out that Mencius’ “theory of good nature” emphasizes the human beings’ innate goodness. Then, using cross-cultural comparison methods, the similarities and differences between Mencius and Machiavelli in ethical concepts, social utilitarianism and human nature are analyzed. Finally, by delving into the two thinkers’ core viewpoints and their influence on modern philosophical discourse, the universality and uniqueness of Mencius’ thought can be better understood. The results indicate that the concept of human nature being inherently good, advocated by Mencius, is the foundation for achieving social harmony, and his idea of harmony provides a new perspective for solving contemporary social problems, as well as important theoretical resources for modern ethics and political philosophy.
Keywords:
Mencius; Human Nature; Familism; Harmony; Confucius
Resumo:
Este artigo foca nos conceitos de natureza humana e harmonia de Mêncio, visando explorar a conexão intrínseca entre ambos e suas implicações para a ética contemporânea, a moralidade e a harmonia social. O texto fornece, primeiramente, uma análise detalhada da teoria da natureza humana de Mêncio, salientando que a sua “teoria da boa natureza” enfatiza a boa natureza íntima dos seres humanos. Dessa forma, usando métodos de comparação transcultural, são analisadas as semelhanças e diferenças entre Mêncio e Maquiavel em conceitos éticos, utilitarismo social e natureza humana. Finalmente, por meio de um olhar para os pontos de vista essenciais dos dois pensadores e sua influência no discurso filosófico moderno, a universalidade e a singularidade do pensamento de Mêncio podem ser melhor compreendidas. Os resultados indicam que o conceito de natureza humana sendo inerentemente bom, defendido por Mêncio, é a base para se alcançar harmonia social, e sua ideia de harmonia fornece uma nova perspectiva para resolver problemas sociais contemporâneos, bem como importantes recursos teóricos para ética moderna e filosofia política.
Palavras-chave:
Mencius; A natureza humana; Familismo; Harmonia; Confúcio
Introduction
Although different sources give information about the exact time or period Mencius lived, there are data, such as 390-305, 385-304, or 372-289 B.C. Sometimes, there is information that he was born 100 years after Confucius died. What is important here is that he was influenced by the political, social and intellectual environment of the period in which he lived rather than his exact date of birth and death. He received his primary philosophical education from Zisi, one of Confucius’ grandsons. He considered himself responsible for spreading the Confucian teachings and faith system (Chong, 2023a). It can be argued that t Confucius and his successors’ main aim was to ensure China’s ethical and political unity since China was only governed by a dispersed and centralized victorious administration in the Qin period.
Following Confucius, who prioritized the issue of what a just and righteous administration should be like, Mencius created his basic ontology by accepting that there is moral autonomy and that morality (Chong, 2023b) is innate and natural. In order to look at the environment in which Mencius was born, the period with uninterrupted records, in ancient Chinese, begins in 771 B.C. For the first time, the Qin Dynasty and China were united. The most crucial feature of dynastic periods is that each dynasty was established very powerfully and became corrupt and weak over time. This situation is continued from B.C. 221 to 1912 (Russell, 1922). During the Eastern Zhou period, the feudal system deepened, and the center gradually weakened. Confucius and Taoism also emerged during the Eastern Zhou period and still maintained their influence.
In terms of its scope, this study does not aim to analyze Mencius’ all views and other contemporary sages, but only to reveal their views on certain issues. Other issues and problems may be the subject of other studies. In this regard, this study consists of four interrelated chapters. In the first chapter, “Who is Mencius” is briefly discussed. In the second part of the study, “human nature,” which forms the essence of Mencius’ thought, is emphasized. In the third chapter, the meaning attributed to the family is discussed comparatively. Since the family is considered the society’s essential core in Confucian thought, it has been deemed valid here to analyze Mencius. In the fourth chapter, a very brief comparison of Mencius’s views with Machiavelli is made, mainly in the context of political philosophy, by using other disciplines, such as political science. The meaning attributed to the concept of morality and virtue can be better understood by comparing it with a Western thinker’s one, who is considered the father of Western political realism. In the conclusion, general evaluations are made.
1 Who is Mencius in ancient Chinese thoughts?
Mencius was a thinker of the Warring States Period (463-222 BC). In 221 B.C, Qin, which became increasingly more assertive and took others under its control, reunited China. Even though there was no political unity, there was a tremendous intellectual accumulation. From 221 B.C. to 220 B.C., the Qin and Han dynasties and the Chinese Empire were ruled. The Qin dynasty spread and imposed its name throughout China. In its early years, Qin Dynasty unified China, ideologically banned Maoism and Confucius, and declared war on systems of thought other than the legalists.
However, the despotic Qin Dynasty was short-lived and ended in B.C. 202, and the Han dynasty began to rise and ruled until 220. During the Han Dynasty, Wang seized the throne and established a regime based on Confucian principles and named it Xin. However, Han members regained their dynasty in 25 years. As a result of various rebellions and inadequacies, the Han period ended in 220. Even though there were minor divisions, the Han Dynasty ruled China for about 350 years. This tradition, based on Confucius’ teachings, continues to a certain extent in today’s People’s Republic of China (Wright, 2011).
According to Brooks and Brooks, inconsistencies can be observed in some texts that are accepted to belong to Mencius. In this case, it should be taken into account that there may be confusion with other sages and teachings of the Warring States period. For example, positive statements, about how a “good government” would act, can be found, and negative statements can be found elsewhere in the text. In this respect, it gives the impression that the available texts may belong to different thinkers (Brooks; Brooks, 2002). This difference may indicate an evaluation between the values that a good government obtains through income, such as taxes, and the values it gains through education. Because, in the Confucian tradition, education begins in the family and is seen as the most basic job that must be done before anything else.
Mencius is a morally and politically optimistic philosopher. At the same time, Mencius is on the critical wing if philosophers are divided into speculative and critical ones (Nivison, 2002). He is famous for criticizing other philosophers. Mencius’ doctrines are considered timeless teachings. He is considered an essential sage in Chinese history, both during his lifetime and afterward. In this regard, Munro (2002, p. 305) explains that Mencius’ immortal teachings are needed in the 21st century as follows:
I expect that some people will continue to treat the Mencius as a text to be lived, well into the twenty-first century. Every age picks and chooses which parts of a complicated text it wishes to emphasize. Therefore, I ask myself, How much ethical theory from within the Mencius do I believe will endure in the new century, in China or in other societies that may treat the Chinese texts attentively? My answer is that those aspects that are compatible with evolutionary essence of the Mencius text, separated from what will then be disregarded as the dross.
2 Human nature and harmony in Mencius’ thoughts
As a major representative of ancient Chinese Confucianism, Mencius’ teachings have had a profound impact on ethics, politics and other aspects. Mencius’ views on human nature and harmony are an important foundation of his ideological system.
Making a philosophical start about “human nature” or taking humans, human nature, or the human mind as ontology is a common point for most philosophers. According to Ames, “human nature” is one of the first issues addressed in the oldest philosophical and theological thought forms. Studying Mencius should be no exception to this situation (Ames, 2002). Briefly, Mencius accepted that “human nature is good” (Chen, 2002). Is this simple statement enough to reveal all his views on human nature? Many academic studies have been produced on this question. Despite all these academic efforts, discussions about human nature have not ended. On the contrary, they have deepened and increased.
Mencius does not distinguish between human nature and external one. In fact, while this distinction is most common in Western philosophy, it is not often encountered in the ancient Chinese tradition. This is related to the fact that modern philosophy, Aristotle’s or Kant’s concepts, and the ancient Chinese philosophers, especially Mencius, have not been studied much (Richards, 1997).
To ask what nature is, according to the Mencius’ formulation, life is called nature; whatever people are born with varies, depending on the situation. Things that are general for everything are called nature. If a prefix is made, according to formulas: “1. white things are called white things; 2. white things are called white; 3. whiteness is called whiteness; 4. all white things are called white; 5. all kinds of whiteness are whiteness; 6. what white things have in common is called whiteness? Therefore, according to Mencius and his teachings, there is no difference between man and nature and between man and animal (Richards, 1997). Considering similar ontologies or ontological tendencies epistemologically as nature makes the task of studying Mencius easier. For example, if there is no obstacle, a symbolization of the water flowing from high to low can be used.
The basic issue that makes Mencius stand out is his views on human nature. Ethically, his views on this subject are considered the pillar of the Confucian tradition. Mencius tries to explain the human nature’s essence by comparing human and animal nature. Accordingly, human nature emerges uniquely and simply from the difference between humans and animals. What distinguishes humans is that the four heart tendencies that describe compassion, shame, benevolence, kindness and the ability to comprehend right and wrong are not found in animals. These four tendencies constitute human nature. What needs to be done is to develop, nurture and live these four tendencies (Ni, 2023).
Can there be a difference between the wise and the normal person due to the egalitarian understanding of nature? In fact, in a way, this problem arises from the fact that Xing is a state given to everyone by heaven, thus, an egalitarian understanding emerges. Heaven does not innately support the sages and, therefore, there is no need for jealousy. With the nature’s equal endowment, everyone is capable of self-improvement and has the potential to achieve the same moral attainments as a sage (Chen, 2002). According to Bloom, Mencius’s discussion of human nature should be examined primarily as a biological conceptualization. Bloom argues that people can see the inherent and acquired separation of differences among people as inherent by criticizing Mencius’ work with the method of intertextuality (Bloom, 2002).
In the human nature’s exploration, Mencius emphasized the relationship between Xin (heart) and Qi (vital Energy), which may be a hint of the purpose of human life. In his opinion, controlling or training Qi was not one of the main priorities. The assumption seems to be that Qi acts as an unruly or harmful influence that disturbs the heart and therefore should be strictly controlled and serve moral purposes. Here, it is necessary to accept that Qi is not the same in everyone. The heart is formed and shaped by Qi; This is the fundamental understanding underlying the ethical approach to life (Chan, 2002). Consciousness or goals control Qi. Therefore, language and the words, produced by the language, are important in the balance and relationship among heart, mind and Qi in the modern sense.
The harmony of Xing and Qi may also represent the basis of moral social order. This manifests itself in the understanding of great harmony or cosmic one in the Confucian understanding. In the connection between morality and human nature, when focusing on the regulation of morality, it is easy to regard morality as a system of rules. This system aims to counteract certain problematic underlying motivational structures, particularly the inherent human tendency to create problems for one another (Cua, 2002).
Mencius’s conceptualization of human nature is of current relevance today, when China is inevitably moving towards its version of Chinese-style democracy. It promises many of the prerequisites of liberal democracy, especially concepts, such as autonomy and equality, which provide the basis for individually conceived political rights (Ames, 2002).
3 From family to state or country: grand harmony
Mencius valued both the development of personal character and the society’s stability. His view of “family, world, and harmony” is not only a reflection on social order issues, but also a reflection on the unity of personal morality and the society’s overall harmony.
In Confucian thought, the family is the leading unit of all kinds of social, political and educational institutions (Fathi, 2024). In fact, this understanding is also found in Aristotle and many other Western philosophical sources. Just as Aristotle established a complete similarity between the state and the family with the statement, “There is no difference between a large household and a small city” (Dobbs, 1996, p. 75), the same thing also exists in Mencius and the tradition of Confucianism in general. Mencius’s focus on the family in every order is seen as familism in a way. This importance given to the patriarchal family, to a certain extent, shapes not only China and the Chinese people, but also Asian peoples and their understanding of family (Tan, 2002).
Although understanding of humans being social as animals or family centrism does not fully reveal the difference between humanity and the animal world, differences emerge with details, such as humans learning social roles and virtue and ethical codes. The subordinate-superior relationship, seen in family relationships or in the state, can also be observed in animals to a certain extent. However, “[…] the distinctive feature is that whereas other animals are limited in their capability of such relations, human beings can expand their understanding of such relations to the utmost to attain a spiritlike clarity (shenming)” (Shun, 2002, p. 224).
In the Confucian view, harmony is by no means merely following the flow. Harmony is fixed in honesty and achieved through balance. People should promote harmony not only within humanity, but also throughout the universe. Therefore, how can harmony be achieved? How can the most advanced level of harmony, called Cosmic Harmony, especially in Confucian thought, of which Mencius is a part, be achieved? To answer this question, first of all, there must be harmony in the details given about human nature. The other, harmony can be achieved through some set of relationships. From here, relationships are designed hierarchically. These relationships are the relationship between father and son, the relationship between the old and the young, the relationship between husband and wife, the relationship between siblings, and the relationship between rulers and the ruled.
In this relationship, the young must obey the elders; the son must obey the father; the wife must obey the husband; the younger siblings must obey the older ones; the governed must obey the rulers. This obedience is, of course, conditional on playing mutual social or political or gender roles. Therefore, cosmic harmony, also called the great harmony among heaven, earth and humanity, is achieved. This can also be seen as the main purpose of Confucian philosophy (Li, 2008).
As the family is the basis of social and political order, the meaning that the Confucian tradition gives to the family directs China’s internal political order as well as its international relations. Therefore, Confucian thought is also accepted as a guide for modern China. Mark Chou (2015) argued that, for nearly 20 years, there have been many studies on China’s rise and its position as a global power. According to him, what needs to be done, from this point on, is for China to invest in soft-power elements and develop them. The best way to achieve this task is to take ancient Chinese philosophy, especially Confucius, as a guide. These ancient thinkers and ideas may have been based on Chinese logic, but they also produced universal values for all civilized people. China can be a normative soft-power power if the option is chosen to bring the world back to order or to propose an order that can appeal to others.
In Imperial China or ancient China’s thought, based on Confucius, there is a natural harmony between the divine and the earthly. Therefore, the universe as a whole is peaceful and harmonious. This cosmic-social order is called the universal kingdom. Tianxia, on the other hand, is based on the moral acceptance that everything happens by the heaven’s command and will. The political order is also accepted as a tool for this ideal moral order, and no borders or ethnic differences are observed. Then, the political order, that is, the king, must be obeyed like the obedience between husband and wife, son and father, young and old, etc., in the universe. This order of obedience expresses social and cosmic harmony. With all these philosophical foundations, Pax Sinica describes the hierarchical order based on Chinese superiority in every sense, with China at the center (Yongjin; Buzan, 2015).
The distinction between public and private appears as one of the topics covered in Confucian thought. It is known that, during the warring states period, there were both private and public areas and ownership (Huang, 2020). However, this does not mean that the public participates in the public sphere and is effective in decision-making, as in ancient Greece. On the other hand, it is obvious that under monarchical rule, the sages and the people were conscious of the distinction between public and private. This situation is based on the fact that it was governed by a feudal monarchy for a long period and, then, by an absolute monarchy. In this context, the understanding of harmony above should be perceived not as equality, but as everyone playing their appropriate role. However, in general terms, Mencius emphasizes the right to private space and private property (Liu, 2023).
This issue was discussed, for example, by the Roman philosopher Cicero, who built a hierarchy of duties to address the problem of role conflict because a person has many roles. According to him, there is a hierarchy between his responsibilities and duties towards his religion, state, city, children and his wife as a husband. The first and most important priority is their duty toward their religion (Treggiari, 1998). Perhaps, this view can be considered as a different interpretation of the concept of let the king be the king, the son be the son, the father be the father, the wife be the wife, etc., which is processed in Confucian thought due to the bond of citizenship (Liu, 1992). However, it should not be forgotten that duties come before rights in Confucian thought.
Mencius’ thoughts also show a relationship between righteousness (yi) and benefit (li). While righteousness is essentially considered a moral concept, behavior aimed at gain refers to an object that one wants to obtain and desires. Li, in this respect, can also be a person, family, or state. However, a reference is made, to a certain extent, to selfish interests. An issue that can be explicitly studied to understand the distinction between public and private is the relationship between yi and li. Although Mencius accepts the existence of both in his thought, one is seen as more valuable in terms of priority and importance (Hu, 2023).
4 Cross cultural comparison of Mencius’ and Machiavelli’s virtue concepts
After exploring the human nature and harmony in Mencius’ thought, as well as the idea of great harmony from family to country, it is necessary to expand the research perspective to a broader cultural and historical environment, in order to have a deeper understanding of their commonalities and individualities. Mencius’ thought is an important component of the history of Chinese thought, and his ideas on human nature and morality are in sharp contrast to Western philosophy. Machiavelli was a realistic political philosopher of the Renaissance era, whose ideas formed a strong contrast with Mencius’ ethical ideals. In order to better highlight the cross-cultural value of Mencius’ thought, this article further explores the comparison between Mencius and Machiavelli in the concept of virtue. By comparing Chinese and Western philosophy, the differences in ethics and social utility between them can be learned, which can also provide more abundant theoretical sources for contemporary philosophical discourse.
Machiavelli’s political philosophy of “realism” highlights the dual pursuit of power and interests, forming a strong contrast with Mencius’ “moral ideals”, thus revealing the differences between virtue and politics in two different cultural contexts. Even though they do not live in the same period and the same geography, a brief comparison of Machiavelli and Mencius can be said to be meaningful. There are similarities among Confucius’ main aim, the thinkers who follow him and Machiavelli’s aim. Machiavelli develops a political philosophy based on the ethical principles with which the ruler or prince, who ensures Italian national unity, should act in a feudal Europe in the Middle Ages.
The same goal was, in a sense, shared by Confucius and his followers during the Warring States Period, who sought a generation and an emperor who would unify China (Hung-Ming, 1922). With the meaning he attaches to the concepts of morality and virtue, Machiavelli differs completely from ancient Chinese thought and his contemporary and previous political and philosophical thought and displays a brand new approach. Today, this approach can be called realism. The interpretation of virtues, by the two, can be compared and analyzed from three levels: ethical concepts, social utilitarianism and human nature.
From an ethical perspective, there are significant differences in the interpretations of virtue between Mencius and Machiavelli. Mencius advocated “benevolence and righteousness” and “putting people first”, taking moral norms and ethical emotions as a harmonious society’s foundation (Tang, 2024). He advocated conforming to human nature and cultivating personal conscience and love through moral education to promote the entire society’s development. In his political science thought, Machiavelli reflected on ethical issues, emphasizing the centrality of “power” and “efficiency”, and pointed out that, in actual political life, the pursuit of national interests is often higher than traditional moral standards. His idea reflects a realistic trend that politicians’ actions should be aimed at achieving their goals, at the expense of traditional morality. Mencius regarded morality and human nature as an internal driving force, while Machiavelli regarded ethics as a means of power struggle, which are two completely different ideologies.
On the level of social utilitarianism, Mencius’ and Machiavelli’s views are also completely opposite. The social utilitarianism advocated by Mencius is centered on the group’s spiritual welfare, advocating that while promoting social development, individual welfare and long-term welfare should also be considered. He believes that the implementation of these policies should be aimed at improving the people’s moral quality, enhancing their living environment, and achieving social harmony and stability. However, Machiavelli’s utilitarianism emphasizes more on the priority of results, placing the effectiveness and decisiveness of policies ahead of morality. His On Monarchy clearly states that, in order to maintain national stability and strength, rulers often resort to extreme methods, even at the cost of sacrificing personal happiness. Mencius’ social utilitarian ideology is an ethical stance of “putting people first”, while Machiavelli’s ideology is a cold reality centered on the results of power and practice.
Mencius and Machiavelli also have completely different tendencies in understanding human nature. Mencius believed in the theory of “good nature” and advocated that people are born with virtues, such as compassion. As long as they are properly educated and nurtured in the environment, it can promote the entire society’s healthy development. Mencius’ educational philosophy is to awaken and cultivate the human beings’ “goodness”, in order to achieve harmony between individuals and society. Machiavelli, on the other hand, questioned human nature and believed that it was evil, putting his own interests first everywhere (Xiong; Yan, 2019). His political ideology emphasizes survival competition and advocates using rights and interests as means to maintain social order, reflecting his keen insight into the human nature’s dark side. Mencius’ optimism and Machiavelli’s pessimism have formed two different views on human nature, both of which directly affect their theoretical positioning and social construction concepts in reality.
According to Machiavelli, the prince must develop Machiavellian virtue instead of conventional one. He must be fearless, unwavering, adaptable and willing to break his word and act against humanity, compassion, the truth and religion. The prince must be sly, ruthless, violent, or cruel, depending on the circumstance, combining the lion’s might and the fox’s cunning. The prince often must learn how to be evil out of political necessity (Ramsay, 2002).
In the book The Prince, which is considered Machiavelli’s masterpiece, many topics, such as morality in general, various forms of government, the man’s basic desires, the ruler’s attitudes towards the elites, the distinction between armed and unarmed prophets, are discussed. His concern is what moral qualities should be present in the leader who can unite the country. According to him, it is considered a virtue for the prince to know when to be brave, and daring like a lion, and when to be cunning like a wolf.
In this respect, the meaning attributed to morality and virtue in ancient Chinese thought does not find a place in Machiavelli. Characters that can lead to bad and pessimistic inferences when first thought of, such as cunning, ambition, aggression, secret murders, etc., are basic virtues. What really matters is that the prince is successful. Therefore, the understanding that every path to the goal is permissible emerges (Machiavelli, 2008). According to Mencius, humans act with the harmony between Qi and heart and are good by nature, while according to Machiavelli, humans are naturally selfish, vengeful, deceitful, and afraid regardless of time and place. In this respect, the ruler must know these human characters properly and control them (Mujahid, 2020).
The foundation of ancient Chinese philosophy is the coexistence of nature and human existence. As Cosmic Harmony, Confucius addressed this circumstance. Confucius actually held that music and rituals were sacrosanct. Similarly, music is seen as an essential component of social harmony. Music is seen, by Confucius, as the bridge that connects heaven and earth (Kirkendall, 2017). According to Confucian philosophy, social harmony and personal development are the most important things. People are expected to carry out their proper societal tasks and responsibilities in an atmosphere of peace. Confucius’ ideas on social peace and self-improvement have greatly influenced the advancement of human civilization worldwide (Gao, 2008). The body and soul have a complementary relationship in which they both complete and validate each other, much like musical notes. According to Confucianism, one can only be referred to as a human being if they are able to build positive relationships with other people. This implies that a person’s ability to humanize, respect and uphold human dignity determines how long they are able to survive (Rozi, 2020).
Interestingly, Machiavelli and ancient Chinese thought followed the same path in establishing a patriarchal social and political order. According to Machiavelli, women are polluters of politics and should be kept away from diplomatic areas, and, in Confucian thought, they are trained to play their own role in harmony. Especially the Yin-Yang ideology is, without a doubt, one of the main tenets of traditional Chinese philosophy. Yin-Yang does not originate from gender prejudice, but when Confucian thought is applied to it, it eventually expands to include women. According to Craddock and Preston (2020), there are harmony and balance between men and women, which broadly reflects the equilibrium between heaven and earth.
Since this search for harmony that places responsibilities on the emperor, Mencius’ teachings are criticized by the political authority occasionally. There is an inference that his views may lead to possible rebellions. For example, according to Goldin, this situation is encountered during the Han Dynasty. In particular, the fact that some uncontrolled developments, which are considered as the heaven’s control or judgment and seen as luck in Machiavelli, challenge their own sovereignty can be considered in this regard. In Mencius’ thought, this situation is treated as the right to rebel (Goldin, 2023). In summary, since great harmony is the heaven’s command and will, the king or emperor must also play his appropriate role. In other words, its absolutism and the obedience it obtains are conditional. Therefore, the governed’s or the public’s consent is also required to a certain extent.
Mencius’ ethical view emphasizes the intrinsic value and universality of virtue, while his social utilitarianism advocates governing the country with benevolence and righteousness to achieve social harmony and stability, thus possessing the characteristic of “the inherent goodness of human nature” (Cheung, 2012). Machiavelli’s moral view emphasizes the effectiveness and efficiency of methods, while social utilitarianism focuses on the country’s stability and strength, and human nature is manifested as selfishness and insatiable greed (Lawrance, 1998). This difference not only reflects the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also provides rich theoretical basis for modern philosophy and political research.
Mencius’ ethical thought emphasizes human nature, advocates the ethical concept of “people-oriented”, and promotes “humanity” and “social responsibility” in contemporary society, which is consistent with the modern emphasis on individual rights and social responsibility (Saich, 2004; Lawrance, 1998). He constructs a positive ethical framework that not only values ethical actions, but also establishes moral bonds between individuals and society. However, Machiavelli’s political philosophy has led to a deep reflection on the essence of power. His advocacy of the “realism” strategy is a questioning of traditional ethics and a complex and unreasonable interpretation of the operation of power. This requires contemporary political philosophers to re-examine the contradiction between “ideals” and “reality”, and explore the balance between “effective management” and “ethics”. Mencius’ and Machiavelli’s theories are not only a critique of ethics and political philosophy, but also an important theoretical foundation for contemporary political practice and moral pursuit.
From the perspective of political philosophy, Mencius’ idea of “benevolent governance” provides useful inspiration for the way of governing the world today. Mencius advocates “putting people first” and implementing “benevolent governance”, which is consistent with the “people-oriented” ideology advocated by modern democratic politics. By establishing and implementing more fair and transparent public policies, the people’s basic rights and well-being are safeguarded to promote social harmony and stability. For example, investment in livelihood areas, such as education, healthcare and housing, should be increased, and social inequality should be reduced through the social security system. In addition, Mencius’ idea of “heaven and time are superior to earth, and geographical advantage is superior to human beings” highlights the important significance of today’s world economic integration. In addressing global issues, such as climate change and public health, governments and international organizations can engage in broader exchanges and cooperation in order to achieve common development and prosperity. Mencius’ ideas still have great practical value today.
Conclusion
In conclusion, in light of the data discussed above, Mencius was influenced in every way by the period he lived in. Nevertheless, he was one of the essential cornerstones in constructing the Chinese thought system that has continued today and is accepted to continue in the future. From a contemporary perspective, Confucius’ main goal was to search for a king who would unify China. A similar goal exists in Machiavelli, who was looking for a king who would unite Italy. Even though they have the same purpose, the meanings attributed to morality, ethics, virtue and luck may differ. This difference is profound and sharp enough to reveal the differences among today’s Eastern societies, the Eastern way of thinking and the West.
In this study, four headings were chosen to summarize Mencius’ philosophy to a certain extent. Accordingly, first of all, who he was and in which period he lived were explained. Secondly, Mencius’ ideas about human nature were detailed. Accordingly, man is good by nature, and man’s primary purpose is to live a good life. Thirdly, the necessary elements to live this good life were revealed. This element also appears as cosmic harmony. The other step, required to provide harmony, was discussed in the fourth heading in comparison with the Western philosopher Machiavelli. Unlike Western philosophers, Mencius focuses on morality and ethics through the Confucian tradition in this context.
Mencius is a philosopher who focuses on being a good person and living a good life. This situation presents a similar situation for almost every philosopher (Wang, 2021). Even if their views on the essential issues and the priority order of these issues differ, depending on the characteristics of the age in which they were born, the fundamental issue can generally be reduced to how to live a good life. Mencius’ emphasis on the human nature’s goodness and ethics also affects today’s philosophy. Mencius’ moralistic perspective should also be evaluated in this context.
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