Landa et al. (1992)2525. Landa R, Piven J, Wzorek MM, Gayle JO, Chase GA, Folstein SE. Social language use in parents of autistic individuals. Psychol Med. 1992;22:245-54.
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43 parents of children with autism spectrum disorder 21 parents of children with Down syndrome or adults without children with autism |
Disinhibited social communication Inadequate expressions Odd verbal interactions |
PRS |
42% of the parents of individuals with autism had some pragmatic language deficit, compared with 2% of parents in the control group |
Fombonne et al. (1997)2121. Fombonne E, Bolton P, Prior J, Jordan H, Rutter M. A family study of autism: cognitive patterns and levels in parents and siblings. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997;38:667-83.
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160 parents of individuals with autism 42 parents of individuals with Down syndrome |
Reading and writing skills |
FHS Form A of GORT Short version of ERT NART The Schonell Graded SST |
No significant differences were found in reading and spelling |
Piven et al. (1997)66. Piven J, Palmer P, Landa R, Santangelo S, Jacobi D, Childress D. Personality and language characteristics in parents from multiple-incidence autism families. Am J Med Genet. 1997;74:398-411.
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48 parents of individuals with autism (multiple-incidence autism families) 60 parents of individuals with Down syndrome |
Pragmatic language Social interaction Personality traits |
MPAS-R PRS FS |
Parents of children with autism had more characteristics of rigidity, aloofness, hypersensitivity to criticism and anxiousness They had more speech and pragmatic language deficits Moreover, they had more limited friendships |
Piven et al. (1997)2020. Piven J, Palmer P, Jacobi D, Childress D, Arndt S. Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:185-90.
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48 parents of children with autism 60 parents of children with Down syndrome |
Social interactions Communication Rigid and stereotyped interests and behaviors |
FHI |
Parents of children with autism had greater social and communication deficits and more rigid and stereotyped interests and behaviors |
Baron-Cohen et al. (1998)2626. Baron-Cohen S, Bolton P, Wheelwright S, Scahill V, Short L, Mead G, et al. Autism occurs more often in families of physicists, engineers, and mathematicians. Autism. 1998;2:296-301.
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275 math students 266 engineering students 100 physics students 652 literature students |
Work interests |
Questionnaire about incidence of 6 conditions: autism, anorexia, schizophrenia, language delays, manic-depression and Down’s syndrome |
Autism was significantly more frequent in families of physics, engineering and math students than in control group of literature students |
Folstein et al. (1999)2222. Folstein SE, Santangelo SL, Gilman SE, Piven J, Landa R, Lainhart J, et al. Predictors of cognitive test patterns in autism families. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999;40:1117-28.
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166 parents of individuals with autism 75 parents of children with Down syndrome |
Pragmatic language Social interaction |
FHI PRS FI PAS |
Parents of individuals with autism had early language-related difficulties and more difficulties in reading, writing and pragmatic language use However, they did not have greater difficulties in evaluation of social-related component of BAP |
Bishop et al. (2004)77. Bishop DV, Maybery M, Maley A, Wong D, Hill W, Hallmayer J. Using self-report to identify the broad phenotype in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders: a study using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2004;45:1431-6.
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69 parents of people with autism-spectrum disorder 59 parents of children without autism |
Social skills Communication Imagination Attention to detail Attention switching |
AQ |
Parents in clinical group had more autism characteristics in communication and social skills than parents in control group There were no differences between groups in other factors |
Bishop et al. (2004)3232. Bishop DV, Maybery M, Wong D, Maley A, Hill W, Hallmayer J. Are phonological processing deficits part of the broad autism phenotype? Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2004;128B:54-60.
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145 parents of children with autism spectrum disorder 96 parents of children with typical development |
Phonological processing Social skills Communication Imagination Attention to detail Attention switching |
AQ Nonword repetition Nonsense passage reading |
Parents with more BAP characteristics according to AQ reported history of more language and literacy problems However, they did not have poorer scores in phonological processing |
Di Michele et al. (2007)1616. Di Michelle V, Mazza M, Cerbo R, Roncone R, Casacchia M. Deficits in pragmatic conversation as manifestation of genetic liability in autism. Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2007;4:144-51.
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23 parents of children with autism 35 parents in control group (12 of children with Down syndrome and 23 of healthy children) |
Pragmatic language |
Experimental tasks of Gricean conversational maxims |
Parents of people with autism had more pragmatic language errors than controls when evaluating taped conversations: difficulty in identifying relevant, redundant and non-informative information |
Ruser et al. (2007)2727. Ruser TF, Arin D, Dowd M, Putnam S, Winklosky B, Rosen-Sheidley B, et al. Communicative competence in parents of children with autism and parents of children with specific language impairment. J Autism Dev Disord. 2007;37:1323-36.
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47 parents of children with autism 47 parents of children with specific language impairment 21 parents of children with Down syndrome |
Emotional expressiveness and awareness of other Communicative performance Over-talkativeness Pragmatic language |
Modified version of the FHI of Developmental Disorders of Cognition and Social Functioning PRS-M |
Parents of people with autism and specific language impairment did not differ from each other according to PRS-M Both groups had a significantly poorer performance in communicative skills than parents of children with Down syndrome |
Whitehouse et al. (2007)2323. Whitehouse AJ, Barry JG, Bishop DV. The broader language phenotype of autism: a comparison with specific language impairment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007;48:822-30.
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30 parents of children with autism 30 parents of children with specific language impairment 30 parents of typically-developing children |
Reading and spelling Social skills Communication Imagination Attention to detail Attention switching |
TROG-2 Test of Word Reading Efficiency Dictation task AQ |
Parents of children with autism had similar scores to those of typically-developing children The two groups had scores higher than those of parents of children with specific language impairments However, parents of children with autism had communication deficits according to AQ |
Losh et al. (2008)2828. Losh M, Childress D, Lam K, Piven J. Defining key features of the broad autism phenotype: a comparison across parents of multiple- and single-incidence autism families. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008;147B:424-33.
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48 parents of individuals with autism (multiple-incidence autism families) 78 parents of individuals with autism (single-incidence autism families) 60 parents of individuals with Down syndrome |
Aloofness and social behavior Rigid personality Pragmatic language Personality traits |
MPAS-R FI The NEO- Personality Inventory PRS |
BAP expression was gradual in the groups of families: parents of multiple-incidence autism families had more BAP characteristics than parents of single-incidence autism families, who, in turn, had more BAP characteristics than parents in the control group |
Scheeren & Stauder (2008)1010. Scheeren AM, Stauder JE. Broader autism phenotype in parents of autistic children: reality or myth? J Autism Dev Disord. 2008;38:276-87.
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25 parents of children with high-functioning autism 25 parents of typically-developing children |
Social skills Attention switching Attention to detail Communication Imagination |
AQ |
Results did not reveal differences between groups |
Schmidt et al. (2008)2929. Schmidt GL, Kimel LK, Winterrowd E, Pennington BF, Hepburn SL, Rojas DC. Impairments in phonological processing and nonverbal intellectual function in parents of children with autism. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2008;30:557-67.
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22 parents of children with autism 22 individuals in control group |
Phonological processing |
PPVT-III EVT DK-EFS TOLC-E Nonword repetition subtest of CTOPP WAIS subtests (vocabulary, similarities, block design) |
Parents of people with autism had a worse performance in repetition of nonword syllables (nonword repetition test) In other phonological tests, there were no differences between groups |
Lindgren et al. (2009)3030. Lindgren KA, Folstein SE, Tomblin JB, Tager-Flusberg H. Language and reading abilities of children with autism spectrum disorders and specific language impairment and their first-degree relatives. Autism Res. 2009;2:22-38.
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62 parents of children with autism and language impairment 39 parents of children without autism and language impairment 70 parents of children with specific language impairment |
Semantics Morphology Syntax Memory for language Lexical comprehension Reading abilities |
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals - Third Edition The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Third edition The Woodcock-Johnson Psycho Educational Battery - Revised |
Parents of people with autism and language impairment had a better performance in language tests than parents of children with specific language impairment |
Wheelwright et al. (2010)1111. Wheelwright S, Auyeung B, Allison C, Baron-Cohen S. Defining the broader, medium and narrow autism phenotype among parents using the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Mol Autism. 2010;1:2-9.
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2,000 parents of children with autism 1,007 parents of typically-developing children |
Social skills Communication Imagination Attention to detail Attention switching |
AQ |
Parents of individuals with autism had higher AQ scores in 4 of 5 factors than parents of typically-developing children, which indicated that the first had more BAP characteristics Fathers had more characteristics than mothers |
Whitehouse et al. (2010)3131. Whitehouse AJ, Coon H, Miller J, Salisbury B, Bishop DV. Narrowing the broader autism phenotype: a study using the Communication Checklist-Adult Version (CC-A). Autism. 2010;14:559-74.
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238 parents of children with autism 187 typical individuals with no history of autism in the family |
Language (speech, syntax and semantics) Pragmatic skills (active communication) Social engagement (passive communication style) |
CC-A |
There were no differences between groups in results of language subscale However, parents of individuals with autism had higher scores in the other two subscales, particularly in social engagement subscale |
Bernier et al. (2012)2424. Bernier R, Gerdts J, Munson J, Dawson G, Estes A. Evidence for the broader autism phenotype characteristics in parents from multiple-incidence families. Autism Res. 2012;5:13-20.
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39 parents of multiple-incidence autism families 22 parents of single-incidence autism families 20 parents of children with developmental delay without ASD 20 parents of typically-developing children |
Social motivation Social expressivity Conversational skills Flexibility/range of interests (restricted interests) |
BPASS |
Parents of multiple-incidence autism families had significantly more autism phenotype characteristics than parents in other groups Moreover, parents of single-incidence autism families did not differ from those of typically-developing children |