TRANSLANGUAGING IN BRAZILIAN BILINGUAL EDUCATION: ANALYZING ORAL PRACTICES IN FIFTH GRADERS’ INTERACTIONS

Abstract

Drawing on Translanguaging theory, which views language as a holistic repertoire, this study examines how students’ translanguaging practices (TP) are manifested and for what purposes. The participants were seven fifth-grade peers in a bilingual school in Brazil (Brazilian Portuguese - English). Their TP were recorded during an oral task based on a wordless, short video stimulus. The data were qualitatively analyzed and coded. Results indicate that TP occurred spontaneously and for specific purposes. The most frequent TP use included gestures, task management, meaning negotiation, lexical creativity, syntactic translanguaging, peer correction, and form negotiation. Findings suggest that translanguaging pedagogy is valuable in bilingual contexts where minority languages are developed because it enables students to communicate freely and critically in a fluid and dynamic environment.

Keywords
bilingual education; interaction; oral production; repertoire; translanguaging

Introduction

The practice of bilingual education around the globe is undeniable, including in Brazil. This expansion can be attributed to various causes, such as migratory factors, realities of border regions, indigenous populations, strengthening of governmental language policies and language associations, the search for social status, and the promotion of understanding of the benefits of multilingualism, as pointed out by several studies by Bialystok (2003), Bialystok and Martin (2004) and Bialystok and colleagues (2012). The increasing popularity of bilingual education and the renewed emphasis on language preservation underscore the importance of research into bilingualism from the perspective of translanguaging theory (TT).

While TT has motivated researchers worldwide since its emergence in the 1980s to explore bi/multilingualism, identity, and language policies, it is essential to note that the majority of Translanguaging Practice (TP) studies have centered on North American and European contexts (García & Otheguy, 2020; Otheguy et al., 2018; Wei, 2018). However, TP studies in the Global South, particularly in regions where the minority language is prominent, remain underrepresented (García & Kleifgen, 2018; Bengochea & Gort, 2020; Rafi & Morgan, 2022) - a gap we aim to address in this study.

Our research, firmly grounded in TT, conceptualizes language as a holistic repertoire and investigates the interactions among seven fifth-grade peers (aged 10–11) enrolled in a bilingual school located in a southern state of Brazil. The study focuses on their collaborative oral task based on a wordless, short video stimulus. We hypothesize that translanguaging naturally occurs in these students' interactions, shedding light on its relevance and applicability in the Global South context, particularly in Brazil, where the valorization of students' linguistic repertoire and the promotion of biliteracy can potentially transform the bilingual educational landscape.

Theoretical Framework

TT claims a view of LP from the perspective of emergent bilinguals themselves and not simply from the language per se, thus meaning that emergent bilinguals are more than learners who have a limited knowledge of the second language, as they translanguage in order to build their relationships or to signify their social experiences in the reality of their bilingual universes. Therefore, educators who operate in this terrain of emergent bilingualism construct their pedagogical practices from the linguistic and cultural practices of their learners instead of suppressing or ignoring them because they recognize such emergent bilingualism as a cognitive, social, and educational resource (García & Kleifgen, 2018).

Lau, Tian, and Lin (2021) place significant emphasis on translanguaging as a potent tool for harnessing the diverse linguistic, semiotic, bodily, and affective repertoires of students, ultimately facilitating profound and meaningful learning experiences. Wei's work (2018) further underscores the multimodal and multisensory nature of translanguaging, effectively bridging sociocultural and cognitive approaches within this framework. Consequently, it is imperative to recognize that translanguaging transcends the boundaries of spoken language, extending its reach to encompass a rich array of semiotic resources. These encompassing resources, including gestures, assume a pivotal role in the dynamic interplay of languages and communication as highlighted in the works of Lin (2019), Lau, Tian, & Lin (2021), Wei (2018), and Lin & He (2017). This phenomenon underscores the holistic essence of translanguaging, where language and non-verbal communication seamlessly converge, giving rise to a unified and profoundly meaningful mode of expression.

Mora et al. (2022) expand on this idea, highlighting the interconnectedness of translanguaging and multimodality, as they both emphasize the importance of flow and agency in language use. The idea of “flow” refers to the interaction between language and its operational context, recognizing the simultaneous and overlapping nature of multilingual and multimodal resources. Additionally, the concept of ”agency” challenges traditional language boundaries and promotes the recognition of linguistic diversity, particularly among marginalized students.

This perspective is in accordance with Wu and Lin (2019), who argue that language should be viewed not as rigid codes but as an integral component of a dynamic and dialogic process involving translanguaging and trans-semiotizing (TL/TS). Wu and Lin’s (2019) study further exemplifies this dynamic perspective by examining the practices of a biology teacher and students in Hong Kong. They find that TL/TS practices, aligned with the Multimodalities Entextualization Cycle (MEC)¹ principles, are interwoven throughout various lesson stages, including exploring and understanding topics and entextualizing experiences and knowledge. Importantly, these practices have a transformative impact on students, as demonstrated by their post-lesson reports. Both Wu and Lin (2019) and Mora et al. (2022) emphasize the transformative potential of translanguaging, advocating for a more inclusive and equitable approach to education. Ultimately, it calls for breaking traditional boundaries and embracing linguistic diversity in communication, teaching, and research.

Building on this discourse, Wei and García (2022) emphasize that translanguaging extends beyond the recognition of students' dynamic multilingualism, also stating that it serves as a potent decolonizing project. This approach transcends the confines of named languages, shedding light on how bilinguals navigate a world enriched by diverse knowledge bases and practices. Wei and García (2022) underscore the imperative of comprehending translanguaging as a unitary repertoire and firmly reject raciolinguistic ideologies that perceive students as deficient. Instead, they advocate for engaging with students through a translanguaging lens, aligning with the decolonial approach of Garcia et al. (2021). This perspective encourages educators to embrace students’ diverse linguistic and cultural features, placing a strong emphasis on translanguaging’s critical and transformative potential within the realm of education. García et al. (2021) also advocate for a decolonial perspective, firmly rejecting colonial language boundaries and actively empowering racialized bilingual learners. Collectively, this body of research enriches the discourse surrounding translanguaging, highlighting its critical, decolonial, and multimodal dimensions within the realm of language and education.

Literature Review

Turning our attention to several studies that have investigated translanguaging practices (TP) in peers’ interactions, Cenoz points to interaction as spontaneous translanguaging which“refers to fluid discursive practices that can take place inside and outside the classroom” (Cenoz, 2017, p. 194). Moreover, TP have been investigated within different skills, such as reading (Cano & Ruiz, 2020; Maseko & Mkhize, 2019; Noguerón-Liu, 2020), listening (Baker & Hope, 2019), reading and writing (Plakans et al., n.d.; Wang, 2019), reading and oral production (Noguerón-Liu et al., 2020), writing (Barbour & Lickorish Quinn, 2020; Orcasitas-Vicandi, 2019), oral (Cohen et al., 2021; Lee & García, 2020; Martin-Beltrán et al., 2019; Poza, 2018), and writing and oral production (Axelrod & Cole, 2018; Coady et al., 2019; Hidalgo & Lázaro-Ibarrola, 2020). Following our primary interest, which is in research focused on analyzing oral translanguaging practices, we now present some recent studies.

The ethnographic study of Parra and Proctor (2021) characterized the ways bilinguals engage in translanguaging during morphology and syntax lessons. The study sought to comprehend how language and literacy instruction stimulates students to expand their meaning-making systems and how students respond to this instruction by seeking to build instruments for translanguaging pedagogy. The study, which the authors refer to as “a translanguaging literacy pilot study,” is specifically a component of a reading curriculum broader initiative that focuses on metalinguistic awareness and participation in language classrooms. The sample came from a public K–8 school in the US whose children participated in Structured English Immersion (SEI) programs and whose community was predominately made up of Latinos. Their teacher selected five third grade students to be part of the study. The pupils’ proficiency was assessed with the WIDA ACCESS test (ranged from “Entering” (level 1) to “Expanding” (level 4), and they had a thirty-minute daily session over the two cycles during the spring and fall seasons. The data of 7.87 hours video and audio that resulted from the 16 lessons was transcribed verbatim. Thereafter, the sequences focused on morphological and syntactical conversations were expanded to conversation analysis transcription conventions according to Jefferson (2004).

Although the results showed that Spanish was the most used language in students’ interactions, there was cognitive engagement in both the Spanish and English languages. The authors’ linguistic analysis followed an exam of the way students connected English and Spanish morphemes, how they reflected on the placement of those morphemes in both languages, how the pupils identified gender-related inflections, and how they explored alternative syntactic structures. The results of their study generated three takeaways: moving beyond vocabulary (translanguaging focus on morphology and syntax can foster opportunities to expand metalinguistic engagement, conversation, and biliteracy), translanguaging shifts promote student agency (translanguaging stance supports the development of students’ agency in classroom), and linguistic analysis and translanguaging are complementary (translanguaging fosters linguistic knowledge), for demonstrating how the students’ critical and creative engagement in literacy can be boosted by translanguaging literacy instruction.

In a 14-week study with four Korean-American first graders, Lee and Garcia (2020) extensively examined oral translanguaging techniques. They examined 1.350 minutes of audio-recorded student interactions from reading and writing sessions as well as 130 minutes of unstructured conversations in the classroom while taking into account the heteroglossic and sociocultural perspectives of language. Additionally, each student participated in two 15–20-minute semi-structured open-ended interviews. With the help of this data collection, Lee and Garcia (2020) sought to identify the factors that influence the frequency of oral translanguaging behaviors among Korean American first-graders in their Korean HL classroom.

The results of their research have demonstrated that all four children often translanguaged. They translanguaged more often at a word-level than at a sentence level. According to the author’s analyses, three out of the four students translanguaged more often than once, although all of them translanguaged orally for sociolinguistic, metalinguistic, metacognitive, and sociocultural purposes. The study explored these categories to explain the purposes of oral translanguaging practices, calling on other researchers in the oral translanguaging field to look deeply into other suggested elements that this study did not work with.

Additionally, Poza’s study (2018) aimed to understand how fifth grade students use translanguaging in performing specific relational functions, analyzing their conversation about stereotypes about Latinx students. The data from 150 hours of audio-recorded interactions among students and between students and teachers over a full academic year was transcribed and analyzed into three categories. Poza (2018) categorized the results according to translanguaging and communicative function and storytelling, and the results showed that translanguaging served several functions in students’ social and identity profiles, as well as it showed itself as an “effective resource in communication, forging alliances, excluding and distancing others, and narrating real or fictitious events” (Poza, 2018, p. 15).

The study of Martin-Beltrán and colleagues (2018), which brings an important contribution to the discussion of our study, investigated how cross-age peers (5-6 & 9-10 years old) would use their home tongue (Spanish) in their interactions as they were prompted with three stimuli - an informational written text, or a video story, or digital story, all in English. They used a quantitative method to discuss the patterns and a qualitative approach to analyze the use of home languages. They coded its functions into five categories: “task management”, “clarifying language”, “negotiating content”, “building relationships”, and “checking for understanding”. The research team also coded the students’ responses to home language use into ‘Engage in activity’, ‘Disengage with activity’ and ‘No response or interruption’. After analyzing all the 400 occurrences of home languages from 470 minutes of video recordings, their study showed that translanguaging was found in students’ utterances to support their literacy activity and to develop their repertoire. Moreover, as highlighted by the authors, this study contributed to this research field by offering a coding scheme for analyzing the functions of home language usage. They also stated that “coding for translanguaging in this context is an area for future research” (Martin-Beltrán et al., 2018, p. 14).

Additionally, Cohen and colleagues (2021) have investigated the ways language exposure and literacy environment at home influence oral narrative skills of bilingual young learners. They analyzed a group of students from a state school with an international program in France, a sample from a larger five-year longitudinal project. The authors aimed to analyze possible factors that support the development and maintenance of the bilingual dynamic complex process.

This qualitative research developed three case studies of first graders (aged 6) French-English emergent bilinguals’ oral narrative production based on the wordless story “Frog, where are you?” (Mayer, 1969 cited by Cohen et al., 2021), which fostered spontaneous oral narratives from the pupils. The data drawn from the study were examined under the three lenses of performance: microstructure, macrostructure, and narrative quality, with some elements subdividing each of them. It must be said that the microstructure, which analyzed the lexical richness and morphosyntactic accuracy, used CLAN software for the transcription and coding of the narrative samples. The macrostructure was analyzed by the authors in nine elements (characters, initial situation, settings, initiating events, general plot, consequences, resolution, internal responses, and inferences). In assessing narrative quality, they observed three elements: sequence of events, precise/accurate language, and literary devices. Sequence of events brings “a global view of the story to assess overall coherence” (Ossa Parra & Proctor, 2021, p. 6). Precise/accurate language refers to the precise use of pronouns and articles to precise referencing of characters as well as tense consistency, which is observed “to what extent the story was consistently narrated in the present or past tenses”; and literary devices refer to observing the existence of story opening and closure, direct speech, and storytelling style.

As regards the results, the following findings are noteworthy: language development was revealed to be fully dependent on language exposure and could shape all levels of microstructure, macrostructure, and narrative quality; the development of linguistic resources interferes with learners’ narrative competence. The study pointed out that parents and teachers should encourage literacy development, and holistic assessment approaches should be employed to assess the development of language growth in bilinguals.

Despite being based on translanguaging theory, the research of Parra and Proctor (2021) has focused on aspects such as linguistic errors, which does not follow the TT approach. Said another way, translanguaging approach is primarily concerned with recognizing what bilinguals have rather than what they lack (Welp & García, 2022).

By integrating these theoretical perspectives and incorporating insights from the provided references, our objective is to shed light on the multifaceted nature of translanguaging practices, including the incorporation of gestures, and their potential implications for language learning and teaching. In doing so, we reveal the studies' portrayal of translanguaging’s pivotal role in formal bilingual education, underlining its capacity to harness students’ multilingual repertoire for enhanced learning and communication. This underscores the significance of adopting translanguaging pedagogy in bilingual education, a point emphasized by García and Kleifgen (2018, p. 109).

Translanguaging pedagogy leverages all the language practices that bilingual students bring to school. Because emergent bilinguals are always embodying their translanguaging—that is, their unitary language system—educating them cannot be a matter of isolating or compartmentalizing one language from the other, using one language in support of another, or simply promoting “transfer” from one language to another. A translanguaging pedagogy is more than a simple scaffold; it leverages the unitary language repertoire of bilingual speakers. In so doing, it transforms practices in schools as well as societal views of such practices.

Therefore, considering the calling for further inquiry into the role of translanguaging in formal bilingual education by Poza (2018), Martin-Beltrán and colleagues (2018), and Cohen, Bauer, and Minniear (2021), among others, this study attempted to complement and contribute with the findings on translanguaging in oral interaction context. It aims at exploring how students’ translanguaging practices are manifested, and for what purposes students translanguage.

In Brazil, Morais, Hübner and Welp (2023) examined fifth-grade students and teachers in a bilingual school, revealing a preference for language separation in formal contexts but a positive view of multilingual behavior, endorsing the potential of translanguaging pedagogy in minority language settings. Lucena and Cardoso (2018) conducted an ethnographic study in a bilingual school, showcasing the natural use of translanguaging and advocating for its role in fostering linguistic development. Additionally, Milozo and Gattolin (2019) analyzed how an Italian learner of Brazilian Portuguese employed translanguaging to construct linguistic knowledge through metalinguistic experimentation, emphasizing language’s dynamic, adaptable nature.

Method

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul on June 24^th of 2021. This article reports the second part of our extensive research. The first part explored participants’ attitudes and perceptions toward their translanguaging practices (Morais et al., 2023).

Research questions

Based on the hypothesis that participants would have a positive attitude towards translanguaging, and that students would use a high level of language recruitment from their linguistic repertoire, the study explored how fifth-grade young emergent bilinguals process translanguaging practices in oral production. Therefore, this study addressed the research question: How is translanguaging manifested in students’ oral production? More specifically, for what purposes do translanguaging practices occur?

The pilot study

A pilot study was developed with two pairs of young bilinguals (females aged 10–12) from 5^th and 6^th grade whose profiles were similar in terms of age, socioeconomic status, and languages knowledge to the participants where the research would take place.

The two wordless video stimuli, Dia Mundial da Gentileza² and Snack Attack³, were tested, and according to participants and the researcher’s observation, the Snack Attack video was found to be more effective, less demanding on working memory, and more enjoyable for the students. Therefore, this pilot helped the researchers make some decisions and adjust the procedures.

Setting and Participants

This study was conducted in a private bilingual school, regarded as a prestige bilingual school, in the southern region of Brazil. It was presumed that all students come from households with a medium or high socioeconomic standing because this is a private school and does not provide scholarships to children from lower-income families. The institution offers morning and afternoon shifts for its classes. Students attend regular classes in their native tongue, Brazilian Portuguese, on one shift, and bilingual classes on the other shift, providing a total of 10 hours of additional English language exposure. In the bilingual program, science, math, and language arts are all included in the curriculum, and students study a variety of subjects in English, including history, culture, society, and the environment.

The participants were 14 fifth-grade kids (nine females and five males), who ranged in age from 10 to 11, and three teachers made up the research sample. They were given fictitious names. Having attended a bilingual school for more than two years, which entails at least two full years of contact with and use of English at the bilingual school, was one of the inclusion criteria. Students were at an early stage of the biliteracy continuum, meaning that their English vocabulary was still expanding, according to information from the teachers and one of the researcher’s own experiences with this age group at the school.

According to the answers to the Questionnaire for Linguistic Characterization and Use for students (QLCU-s), all students were born in Brazil and spoke Brazilian Portuguese as their first language, the same for their parents. Eleven (78,57%) of the 14 students had English as their second language and German as their third language, one had Spanish as a third language, while just one participant did not have a third language. They were considered consecutive bilinguals, specifically, four students started to learn English when they were between two and three years old, five were between four and five years old, and four were between six and eight years old. As regards the age of enrollment in the bilingual program, one was four, one was five, four participants were six, two were seven, four were eight years old, and just one had been enrolled by the age of nine.

Considering the students’ overall language experience, their linguistic repertoire has been developed mostly at school and private language courses. Six (42.85%) students stated that they had also learned English at home and on their own.

As regards the languages exposure, based on the QLCU-s, students used their languages to speak to parents, relatives, and friends, speak at school, read, write, listen to music, watch TV, and see movies. Moreover, they also use their linguistic repertoire to tell personal stories, calculate, take notes, speak when they are angry, and express affections.

Instruments and procedures for data collection

By email, the researchers sent invitations to the teachers who would help in the data collection, and the bilingual school office forwarded the researchers´ invitation to all parents from the fifth-grade students of the bilingual program. Students were invited orally by the teachers. All parents and students signed the consent terms on Google forms. Online collection was the measure adopted due to the Covid-19 pandemic, which required some level of precaution.

The Questionnaire for Linguistic Characterization and Use for students (QLCU-s), based on Scholl and Finger’s (2013), Kaushanskaya and colleagues (2020), Orcasitas-Vicandi (2019), and the authors’ knowledge and experience, was developed to gather students’ sociodemographic information, linguistic background, and language experience in and out of the classroom.

The short wordless video called Snack Attack was used as the stimulus for the students to accomplish the task. Briefly, it is a story of an elderly woman who buys cookies from a machine at a train station. While she waits for the train, she eats biscuits, which she thought were those she bought. However, they were a young boy’s cookies. When she enters the train, she realizes she had eaten the boy’s cookies and felt ashamed for having misjudged the boy.

During the class period, each pair of students was conducted to a quiet room at the school by the former teacher Fernando to join the researcher on the Google Meet virtual platform. The peer was instructed to remain in front of the computer camera. Before seeing the short video, the researcher showed some key images that could pose some challenges in terms of vocabulary on a PowerPoint (a train station, a food machine, a box of cookies, a bench, and an image of three hands sharing cookies) and asked the students to write them down to support vocabulary. The students were asked to write the words down to avoid overloading working memory for remembering the words (Barbour, Lickorish Quinn, 2020) and also because, based on the pilot experiment’s observation, students could forget some non-annotated words when preparing the presentation.

Students were instructed to watch the video attentively, presented on Google Meet virtual platform, to produce a narrative of the story they saw in the video. They should first practice the narrative orally in pairs, for about five minutes, to prepare a presentation (fictitious) to students in British Guyana to encourage them to celebrate the World Kindness Day. They were instructed to freely use all languages at their disposition to interact with their peers while preparing the presentation, with no use of a dictionary or any other external support. This decision was made to encourage students to withdraw from their repertoire a solution for their communication purposes. Furthermore, in agreement with Hidalgo and Lázaro-Ibarrola’s (2020) suggestion, students were paired up considering their personal relationships to avoid conflicts between them during interactions.

All their interactions, encompassing the planning phase and their collaborative narration of their story were video and audio recorded for further analyses.

Procedures for data analysis

The students’ interactions video and audio recordings of 37 minutes and 19 seconds were fully transcribed following Preti (1999).

Following translanguaging theory and expanding the codes from Martin-Beltrán et al. (2018), the translanguaging practices were qualitatively identified and coded into eight categories, namely: content negotiation (when negotiating content or meaning - more related to content words, expressions, or ideas), form negotiation (when discussing language form with function words (e.g. which preposition, or conjunction to use), task management (when planning or discussing the task or utterances’ turns), peer correction (when correcting one another’s language), gesture (when using body gestures to communicate including or not words), syntactic translanguaging (when blending syntactic structures from one language integrating syntactic structures from another), and lexical creativity (when creating new forms or words to make meaning) (Table 1).

Table 1
Codes for oral translanguaging practices

Codes	Abbreviations	Definitions
Content negotiation	CN	when negotiating content or meaning (more related to content words or ideas)
Form negotiation	FN	when discussing language form with function words (e.g. which preposition, or conjunction to use)
Gesture	-	when using body gesture modes to communicate with or without words
Lexical creativity	LC	when creating new forms or words to make meaning
Peer correction	PC	when correcting one another’s language
Syntactic translanguaging	ST	when blending syntactic structures from one language integrating syntactic structures from another
Task management	TM	when planning or discussing the task or utterances’ turn

• Source: Adapted from Martin-Beltrán et al. (2018)

Based on these codes, the researchers have observed the general frequency of those translanguaging practices to explain tendencies, as Figures 1 and 2 summarize in the following section.

Figure 1
Peer interactions’ length of recordings

Figure 2
Students’ translanguaging practices per peers (Frequency per Peer)

Results

This section presents the results gathered from the oral task administered and registered on Google Meet platform. The results presented in this section tried to answer how translanguaging is manifested in students’ oral production, and, for what purposes translanguaging practices occur. Figure 1 provides an overview of the length of recordings per peer.

Considering frequency, Figure 2 shows the findings according to the codes from the analysis per peer. Specifically, taking into account the TP manifested in students’ oral repertoire during their peer interaction while performing the task, all peers translanguaged at some point of the task.

Post hoc analysis evidenced that pupils translanguaged for CN, FN, TM, PC, as well as with gestures, ST and LC. Figure 3 represents the total occurrences per code considering the occurrences among all students. Translanguaging practices with FN and PC were the fewer. LC and ST occurred more frequently, and the most evidenced TP occurred in context of TM and CN, while translanguaging practices with gestures was the norm in all seven peers. Thus, Figure 4 below shows the results of the TP more specifically per peer.

Figure 3
Students’ translanguaging practices (Frequency per Code)

Figure 04
Translanguaging practices in oral task (per peer)

The excerpts below present significant instances of students’ TP, starting with the most to the least frequent. Those instances are highlighted in bold.

Gestures

Specifically, to demonstrate TP with nonlinguistic modes, which were the most regular in peers’ interactions, the excerpts below illustrate significant moments of its occurrence. For example, Mara, in line 57, shifted from oral to gestural, from gestural to oral mode again. This showed how Mara expressed her repertoire to make meaning in their oral presentation. Excerpt 02 shows how both students could communicate with their eyes to flow in their task preparation, and line 09 how Frank used gestures with her hands to complete her message. Excerpt 03, line 20, also illustrates how peer Vini-Abel translanguaged with gestures to manage the task while they used their eyes and hands to convey their speech.

Excerpt 01
(Gestures)

PEER MARA-LISA
LINES	MARA	LISA
48		and she start... like... she eat... and then she see the boy eating... and she was already mad… so she have a::…
49	she has.. like... get the cookie…like… ((student leaned her back on the chair and opened her arms playing the boy´s role)) ( ) and the guy was like “what´s happen?”
50		what´s happening? like... what?
51	and then... her...
52		why she is like this?
53	like… and then her metro came…
54		and.... - - before the train came she… she... - - she...
55	she get it ... the...
56		she fight with the::...
57	yeah... because the guy wanted the cookie... but she want it, so they start doing like THIS … ((Mara communicated with her body in the same way that they have done in the film)) and the guy get it and do like THIS... ((Mara took a post-it block as if it was a cookie to show that the guy had taken the cookie and broken it into two pieces))

Excerpt 02
(Gestures)

PEER FRANK-CRISTIAN
LINES	FRANK	CRISTIAN
06		(...) he had the same package of cookies
07	yeah... the same package of cookies ( ) the old lady... then the lady (thought) that was she…/ her cookie... / her package of cookies... then... they start sharing the cookies... and when the train came... ah… the... / she open her...
	she has.. like... get the cookie…like… ((student leaned her back on the chair and opened her arms playing the boy´s role)) ( ) and the guy was like “what´s happen?”
08		her bag
09	her bag to... to... ((while looking for the word Frank put his hands together trying to mime the old lady showing the ticket))
10		show the (tickets) to them
11	then the::…/ she saw the… the... / her package of cookies…
12		was in her bag ((student stared her classmate as expecting his agreement))
13	yeah... ((student nodded to show agreement))

Excerpt 03
(Gestures)

PEER VINI-ABEL
LINES	VINI	ABEL
18		(…) tá... mas quem vai começar a apresentar? eu ou você? [(…) right… but who is going to begin to present? you or me?]
19	é tu... vai... [it's you… go…]
		first a woman... go to the food machine...and she picks... and she picks some cookies…
20	then the::… then she put in the… in the bag… the cookie box… ((Vini looks at Abel and moves his hands round and round showing that he could continue. Abel understands the message and continues.))
21		after this… after THAT… ((Abel leans his head back and closes his eyes correcting himself at the moment he says ‘after that’)) after that...she goes to a bench next to the train station… in the train station next to the train… to eat her cookies… ((at this moment, Abel looks at Vini signalling with his look that he could pick the story up from there))
22	yeah…but a::… a::: another… another person …another person… a boy… eh:::……. hum…. como é que é?... também.... como é que é também mesmo?... [how is it?... também... So how to say também?...]
23		eh.... also ( )

Task Management (TM

The following excerpts copied below show how the pupils translanguaged to manage the task they were accomplishing. Fany, in excerpt 04, keeps the second language as she tries to narrate the story, but every time she managed the task, she spontaneously integrated her home language to do it. In a similar way, excerpt 05 also shows how Anita managed the task by doing the same. TP with task management was the second most common in our study, used with high frequency in five out of the seven peers, as shown in Figure 02.

Excerpt 04
(TM)

PEER FANY-MARINA
LINES	FANY	MARINA
33	(thinking that was… thinking that...) - - daí você fala... daí eu paro e daí você fala - - thinking that was hers cookie box... and she started to eat and the boy stay like "what? It´s mine" ... dai / dai / dai and the boy stay like "what? It mine" - - por que você fala... né? agora eu... daí... é...on the end stay only one / only one cookie... [thinking that was, thinking that...then you speak, then I stop... then you speak... thinking that was hers cookies box... and she started to eat and the boy stay like "what? It´s mine"... then, then, then and the boy stay like "what? It´s mine" - - because you speak, right? now me... then... is... oh the end stay only one, only one cookie...
23	ah... ok... então... so... In November thirteen we celebrate the world kindness day... this day is a::...
24		(…) a gente tem que ( ) [(…) we have to ( )]
25	(…) calma... only one / only one / only one cookie... and the boy shared… / and the boy shared… [take it easy … ((the same))]

Excerpt 05
(TM)

PEER ANITA-DANIEL
LINES	ANITA	DANIEL
22		ah... ( ) knew that Guyana don´t have this day... ( ) celebrate this day... then we´re going to tell the story... e fala a historinha… [ah... ( ) knew that Guyana don´t have this day... ( ) celebrate this day... then we´re going to tell the story... and tell the story...]
23	ah... ok... então... so... In November thirteen we celebrate the world kindness day... this day is a::... [ah… ok… then… so… ((the same))]
24		(...) a day ( )...
25	this day is a day that we... ah... share the things with / to share our things that we have with others that don't have… and…
26		ah… ok… I tell the…
27	the story…
28		yeah… but she said that we can tell the story together…
29	can be… so… you conta a primeira parte da história e daí… [can be… so… you tell the first part of the story and then…]
30		ok...
31	tá... we are prontos… [right… we are ready…]

Content negotiation (CN)

Both excerpts below illustrate how the students used semiotic resources from their unitary repertoire to flow in their oral presentation preparation and accomplish the task. We see in line 23, from excerpt 06, how Vini moved from the second language to his home language to negotiate the content, as he did not remember how to express “também” (‘also’) in his second language. Similarly, excerpt 07, line 13, shows that Jorge did the same by asking Vicky for the word “quando” (‘when’).

Excerpt 06
(CN)

PEER VINI-ABEL
LINES	VINI	ABEL
20		first a woman... go to the food machine...and she picks... and she picks some cookies…
21	then the::… then she put in the… in the bag… the cookie box… ((Vini looked at Abel and moved his hands round and round showing that he could continue. Abel understood the message and continued.))
22		after this… after THAT… ((Abel leaned his head back and closed his eyes correcting himself at the moment he said after that)) after that...she goes to a bench next to the train station… in the train station next to the train… to eat her cookies… ((at this moment, Abel looked at Vini signalling that he could pick up the story from there))
23	yeah…but a::… a::: another… another person …another person… a boy… eh:::……. hum…. como é que é?... também.... como é que é também mesmo?... [how is it?... também... So how to say também?...]
24		eh.... also ( )

Excerpt 07
(CN)

PEER JORGE-VICKY
LINES	JORGE	VICKY
11	but the cookies... the lady and the boy eating... is not… / the cookie is not of lady... is of the boy… ((student turned to his classmate signalling with eyes that he was waiting for agreement))
12		yes... and...
13	and he see this::... - - como será que é quando? - - [and he see this::… - - how do we say quando? - -]
14		when

Lexical Creativity (LC)

As Figures 02 and 03 show, students translanguaged by creating new forms or words in their meaning-making system quite often during the task. The practice was the fifth most common and it appeared in five peers’ interactions with no difference of frequency when compared with CN. The excerpts 08 and 09 show how students used their unitary repertoire creatively. Excerpt 08 shows an example of how TP was used for LC when Mara and Lisa applied the past rules to regular verbs in irregular verbs and, by doing so, they made meaning of their language experience while accomplishing the task. In excerpt 09, line 23, another instance: in Brazilian Portuguese, the verb for ‘to present’ is ‘apresentar’. We can see in peer Vine-Abel’s excerpt that Vini creatively used his repertoire to make meaning of his speech by creating the word ‘apresentate’ with a proper English pronunciation – /əprezən'teɪt/.

Excerpt 08
(LC)

PEER MARA-LISA
LINES	MARA	LISA
19	she hitted the food machine... and then the cookie fell... and then she get it and she went to a bench
		(...) to wait the train
36		and she sitted in the bench with this...
37	this guy
38		this guy... and this guy was already eating the same cookie that the woman
39	(...) no... it was closed... it was closed...
40		yeah...but...
41	(...) the cookie was... like... here, and when she sitted ... she get it... like the cookie... and then the guy was like confused... and he started... like... eating the cookie ((as student speaks she takes a block of post-it to represent the cookie... puts it in her hands miming the action))

Excerpt 09
(LC)

PEER VINI-ABEL
LINES	VINI	ABEL
33		tipo assim... ( ) A gente vai CONTAR a his-tó-ria ou a gente vai vir aqui e apresentar tipo... here... the cookies... ((Abel also takes a paper and moves his body left to right)) [like this… we are going to tell the sto-ry or we are going to come here and to present.. like... uhu... the cookies..]
23	não... não... ah::.... we will apresen:: é tell and 'apresentate' this story to ( ) the::.... [no… no… ah::… we will apresen:: it’s tell and 'apresentate' ((meaning the verb to present)) this story to ( ) the::…]
24		(…) a gente tem que ( ) [(…) we have to ( )]
25	(…) calma... only one / only one / only one cookie... and the boy shared… / and the boy shared… [Take it easy … ((the same))]

Syntactic Translanguaging (ST)

ST could be seen very often among different emergent bilingual in the use of the expression “is this.” when they were concluding their tasks or some parts of it. In Brazilian Portuguese, we would use the construction “É isso.” as equivalent to “That’s it.” in English when ending a speech turn. Peer Mara-Lisa syntactically translanguaged by saying “is this.”, as excerpt 10 illustrates.

Another example of this TP is that in Brazilian Portuguese the expression “shout at people” would be “gritar com as pessoas”. So, as can be seen in line 11 of excerpt 11, Rachel used her entire repertoire to make meaning of her speech by saying “the people shout with the others”.

Excerpt 10
(ST)

PEER MARA-LISA
LINES	MARA	LISA
		so she saw in her handbag the cookies and …
73	and then she start feeling…
74		feeling sad and…happy that is not her cookie that he eat…but sad because…
75	(...) no... but then she start feeling guilt... like…
76		because she eat the cookie of the other guy... so... is this...

Excerpt 11
(ST)

PEER RACHEL-VIVIAN
LINES	RACHEL	VIVIAN
9	to make the world better ( ) … is it important to be kindness with all the people… because everybody need help
10		and everybody have to be respectful...
11	ok.. because everybody need help… and... the world is… like… with so many fight… so many fight and… the people shout with the others…

Peer Correction (PC) and Form Negotiation (FN)

Lastly, PC and FN were found as the least common forms of translanguaging, differently from what we expected. Excerpts 12 and 13 show how students of both peers translangued with the purpose of negotiating form and correct their colleagues.

Excerpt 12
(FN)

PEER FANY-MARINA
LINES	FANY	MARINA
7	there was...we can… / we could say: on the video there was a… / a... / a old woman
8		(…) on ou in the video? [(…) on or in the video?]
9	ah…(sei falar)…((student moves her left hand up and down))....é in, in [ah… (I know how to speak)… it's in, in]

Excerpt 13
(PC)

PEER FANY-MARINA
LINES	FANY	MARINA
35	(…) calma... only one / only one / only one cookie... and the boy shared… / and the boy shared… [Take it easy … ((the same))]
36		(…) shared ((correcting pronunciation))
37	shared the last cookie for her… and later... she goes on the::...
38		the bus…
39	on the ... / in the bus…
40		- - in
41	- - in the bus... and… / and...

Discussion

This study has brought evidence that participants have manifested translanguaging practices not just linguistically, but by drawing upon a variety of linguistic and semiotic resources or by using different tools at their disposal, as García citing Fu and Hadjioannou (2021, p. 3) says, “bilingual tools [that] are standing by, ready to jump in, even when conforming to one language-only zones”.

As portrayed in Figures 2, 3, and 4, students translanguaged for Content Negotiation, Form Negotiation, Task Management, Peer Correction, as well as with Gesture, Syntactic Translanguaging and Lexical Creativity. Translanguaging practices with FN and PC were the least evidenced. LC and ST occurred more frequently, and the most evidenced translanguaging practices occurred in the context of TM and CN, while translanguaging practices with the semiotic resource of gesture was the norm in all seven peers. These results, in agreement with Williams (2020), showed how emergent bilinguals can express ideas, mediate language, and aid communication through other semiotic resources rather than language, and how students were able to follow the translanguaging corriente during the task and to fulfill their communicative purposes in the target language by replacing the words or messages with gestures. Moreover, this result corroborates Lin's (2019), Lau, Tian, & Lin (2021), Wei (2018), and Lin & He (2017) understanding into the pivotal role played in the dynamic interplay between languages and communication.

TM, the second most frequent TP in our findings, had the second high frequency, with a total of 26 occurrences adding the information from all peers. This corroborates Martin-Beltrán and colleagues’ (2018) study, which showed that TM was the most frequent function for the use of Spanish home language among the interactions between pupils aged 5-6 and 9-20. Our result was corroborated also by Alegría De La Colina & Del Pilar García Mayo (2009), and by Dicamilla and Antón (2012). As for the TP manifested for Content Negotiation, different from what Martín-Beltran and colleagues’ (2018) study revealed, our findings evidenced the use of content negotiation as an important strategy used by the children.

As regards Lexical Creativity, which appeared in four peers, pupils creatively translanguaged to communicate meaningfully in that translanguaging space (García & Wei, 2014, 2017; Wei, 2018). Considering the results of the TP related to form negotiation, our result was different from Hidalgo and Lázaro-Ibarrola’s (2020), which showed a greater number of languages episodes focused on form. Nevertheless, in our study, they appeared with a high frequency in peer Fany-Marina (See Figures 2 and 4).

According to the results of the study developed by Morais et al. (2023), which analyzed attitudes and perceptions of the same group towards TP, on the one hand, it was seen that “the use of home language practices is avoided and not preferable” (p. 14), there is “a solid stance for language separation in formal contexts”, but on the other hand, the results also concluded that there was “a willingness to use translanguaging pedagogy as a resource to foment a greater understanding and deeper discussion” (ibid). Additionally, the current study, which included the same students, revealed how natural TP were for all students, whether by using gesture, meaning negotiation, task management, lexical creativity, syntactic translanguaging, peer correction, or the least frequent form negotiation. Thus, based on that, we follow the understanding of García and Kleifgen (2018), who see bilingual education programs as a space for language development completely bound to the real world, where “students develop new linguistic practices when they learn to use language for meaningful purposes, particularly when they learn something of interest and want to use language to show that understanding” (García & Kleifgen, 2018, p. 104).

Considering Vogel and Garcia’s (2017) and Cenoz and Gorter’s (2021) understanding that translanguaging pedagogy is valid for contexts in which students are majority language speakers and are developing a minority language, the results of this study may have supported our hypothesis that TT is valid for bilingual education in which a second language is being developed.

Garcia (2019) asserts that with translanguaging there is the possibility of forming a new path towards an educational system away from the model of perpetuity of a colonialist system because TL carries the strength of autonomy and freedom of speakers who write their own stories while constructing their own meanings through semiotic resources from their repertoires. Furthermore, the findings evidenced how these emergent bilinguals have manifested those translanguaging practices naturally while they were engaged in and with the task. Those practices freely emerged from their unitary repertoire (Wei & García, 2022). Therefore, educators are encouraged to embrace translanguaging pedagogy, by welcoming the students’ linguistic and cultural features (Garcia et al., 2021).

Furthermore, the findings evidenced how these emergent bilinguals have manifested those translanguaging practices naturally, as they were getting engaged in and with the task. Those practices freely emerged from their unitary repertoire (Wei & García, 2022). Therefore, educators are encouraged to embrace translanguaging pedagogy as they value the students’ linguistic and cultural features (Garcia et al., 2021).

We point out here that the target of translanguaging pedagogy is the development of a learning environment that offers a solid ground for emerging bilinguals to express their subjectivities and different forms of knowledge in an active way as bilingual subjects who are agents of their own discoveries and histories (Lau, Tian, & Lin, 2021; Cenoz & Gorter, 2021; García & Wei, 2022).

Conclusions and implications

Findings from this study contribute to research on the role of translanguaging in bilingual education. They also stand by the study of Martin-Beltrán and colleagues (2018) as they add elements to the coding scheme for understanding the importance of allowing the emergent bilinguals’ whole semiotic repertoire.

We come from a long way of a language teaching culture that separates content from language, as Cenoz and Gorter (2021, p. 1) say: “the potential of multilingual students based on their repertoire has not been fully developed because traditionally schools have adopted monolingual ideologies and have isolated languages in the curriculum.” However, this study evidenced that it is natural for students to use all resources available in their repertoire, even though the students consciously try to avoid using their home language.

Additionally, considering what Ofelia García mentioned in a lecture⁴ at Columbia University in 2019 by saying that “while teachers do not accept the full repertoire of a child by following translanguaging theory, injustice has been done with children”, we would like to add the testimony of one of the authors of this paper, which partly motivated her interest in investigating this topic. As a former English teacher to young children, several times she silenced students in class because they were not able to express themselves in the target language. Language Arts was one of the disciplines she used to teach, and it covered a wide range of topics like teamwork, the environment, history, and music, among others. She used to raise a range of questions to foster independent learning and critical thinking. It would be difficult to list all the times when the students became anxious during the lessons because they were unable to express their understanding of the subject or, occasionally, the comments that they would like to make and could enrich the lesson, simply because they were not yet fluent in the target language. This practice stimulated only the most fluent individuals rather than the entire group, and it also made her pull away those who could have enhanced the discussion, for the sake of the rule ‘only English in class’. This echoes the words of Seltzer and García (2018, p. 4) when say that “One of the consequences of strictly separating English and the LOTE in traditional Dual Language classrooms is that students often do not have the opportunity to demonstrate what they know.”

Thus, in accordance with García and Otheguy (2020), we believe that the major interest of translanguaging, as a theory of decolonial nature, is to strive to restructure sociopolitical and socioeducacional frameworks that promote injustices in linguistic hierarchy. Moreover, we agree with Morais et al. (2023) that translanguaging theory plays a greater role in bilingual education all over the globe, including Brazil, where “being bilingual has increasingly become the norm for students.” (Morais et al., p. 14). In the light of these results, translingual pedagogy, alongside the studies by Welp & García (2022), Rocha & Megale (2021), Lucena and Cardoso (2018) among others analyzing Brazilian and other contexts, seems to be valid for contexts of minority language development, in which bilingual educators are committed to purposefully create a fluid and dynamic space for learners to be able to critically convey their thinking. Hence, this study supports the notion of bilingualism as a dynamic construct which significantly deviates from a monoglossic norm, corroborating the understanding that all students draw from their linguistic-semiotic, cultural, and historical repertoires (García et al., 2021) to communicate.

Therefore, this study calls for future research to investigate whether translanguaging space in bilingual education may prove to be beneficial for enhancing learning opportunities without diminishing language development and accuracy.

Acknowledgments

We thank all the school team, parents, and students who voluntarily agreed to participate in the study to support science in the bilingual education field.

• 1
  The Multimodalities-Entextualization Cycle (MEC) is an educational framework developed by Angel Lin for Content-Based Education (CBE) settings. It features three stages, prioritizing dialogic meaning-making and expanding students' communicative repertoires by connecting everyday and school-defined semiotic patterns.
• 2
  The Kindness World Day video is available on https://portalkairos.org/tag/dia-mundial-da-gentileza/
• 3
  This short video was the official video for the World Kindness Day campaign in 2013. It is available on http://snackattackmovie.com/#about%20film.
• 4
  The video “Translanguaging: Shifting the View from Languages to Speaker”, lecture in Columbia University-Spring is available on: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPqriNOVL60&list=PLUUR-6kA2hOrm

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  01 Mar 2024
• Date of issue
  Sep-Dec 2023

History

• Received
  29 June 2023
• Accepted
  01 Sept 2023