Aves and Fungi interactions in a review of mycophagy and its associations in wildlife and industry

Abstract

Fungi and Aves are present in all ecosystems and interact with a variety of organisms. The purpose of this study was to compile and analyze in the literature the mycophagy and association of birds with fungi to evaluate the aspects of interaction habits and habitat in natural and industrial environments. In this study, 64 species of wild birds were found with documented interactions involving fungi. However, only 32 had the consumed or used-for-nesting fungi species fully identified. In these cases, there is a correlation between the birds’ foraging habits and the habitats of fungi. According to the findings of this review study, birds’ foraging habits are closely linked to fungi habitats in relation the interactions between the groups. Also, the poultry industry is increasingly using mushrooms as a nutritional supplement due to their benefits. Despite the limited knowledge about the nutritional benefits of these associations in the wild, results from the industry indicate that the benefits would be similar.

Key words: avian mycophagy; beneficial associations; foraging habits; natural and artificial food; poultry farming.

Resumo

Fungos e aves estão presentes em todos os ecossistemas, interagindo com uma variedade de organismos. Este estudo teve como objetivo compilar dados na literatura sobre a micofagia e analisar as associações das aves com fungos, avaliando os aspectos de hábitos e habitats nos ambientes naturais e industriais. Neste estudo, foram encontradas 64 espécies de aves silvestres com interações documentadas envolvendo fungos. No entanto, apenas 32 tiveram as espécies de fungos consumidas ou usadas para nidificação completamente identificadas. Nestes casos, há uma correlação entre os hábitos de forrageamento das aves e os habitats dos fungos. De acordo com os resultados desta revisão, os hábitos de forrageamento das aves estão intimamente ligados aos habitats dos fungos em relação às interações entre os grupos. Além disso, a indústria avícola está utilizando cada vez mais cogumelos como suplemento nutricional devido aos seus benefícios. Apesar do conhecimento limitado sobre os benefícios nutricionais dessas associações na natureza, os resultados da indústria indicam que os benefícios podem ser similares.

Palavras-chave: micofagia aviária; associações benéficas; hábitos de forrageamento; alimentação natural e artificial; avicultura

Introduction

There are approximately 3.8 million species of fungi that have been cataloged (Hyde et al. 2020), with the first appearing 1.2 billion years ago (Berbee & Taylor 2010). Fungi can be found in various ecosystems, including aquatic, terrestrial, and arboreal environments, and they interact with a wide range of organisms, including mammals, arthropods, birds, and plants (Tiquia-Arashiro et al. 2019). It is estimated that birds originated approximately 95 million years ago (Lee et al. 2014) and currently encompass a total of 10,426 recorded species (Gill et al. 2022). Similar to fungi, they have been found in all ecosystems, exhibiting a range of feeding habits from specialists to generalists (Ericson et al. 2006). Birds employ various foraging tactics, including aerial, terrestrial, and aquatic environments (Robinson & Holmes 1982). This diversity is further categorized into three main groups: carnivores, herbivores, and omnivores (Beddall 1957).

Several characteristics of fungi, such as shape, size, color, aroma, and texture, contribute to the interaction between prey and predator in mycophagy (Beever & Lebel 2014). Fungal spores can be dispersed through interactions with fauna, consumption, internal or external travel with consumers or travelers, and defecation (O’Malley et al. 2013; Horton 2017; Jusino et al. 2022). According to Costa et al. (2022), Molothrus bonariensis (Gmelin 1788) acts as a dispersing agent of Macrolepiota bonariensis in the studied area through mycophagy activities and subsequent defecation.

Many fungi disperse their spores by wind (Golan & Pringle 2017), but most distances considered within reach are minimal, with up to 95% of the spores remaining within one meter of the fungus (Galante et al. 2011; Horton et al. 2013). Elliott & Vernes (2019) reported a relationship between fungal habitat and the foraging habits of birds. This relationship was observed in the case of Menura novaehollandiae (Latham 1801), which feeds on Rossbeevera vittatispora, a soil fungi. Other forms of association between birds and fungi exist in relation to habitat and foraging behavior. For instance, Colaptes auratus (Linnaeus 1758) has been documented interacting with Fomes fomentarius, where did the bird show a preference for excavating nests in trees with the presence of the fungi (Martin et al. 2004; Edworthy et al. 2012; Lorenz et al. 2015).

According to Elliott et al. (2019), avian mycophagy is more widespread than previously believed. Caiafa et al. (2021) demonstrated that several truffle species in Patagonia rely partially on birds for their dispersal, including Scelorchilus rubecula (Kittlitz 1830) and Pteroptochos tarnii (King 1831). However, numerous unanswered questions persist regarding the evolution of mycophagy in birds, the significance of feeding habits in their natural environment, and the correlation between avian feeding and foraging behaviors in relation to fungal habitats. Furthermore, limited knowledge exists regarding the nutritional value of fungi in the diets of birds.

Nutritional supplementation with fungi in poultry farming has been found to be beneficial (Azevedo & Barata 2018). Studies involving broiler chickens (Gallus gallus - Linnaeus 1758) have shown that the inclusion of fungi in feed improves the nutritional quality of meat, intestinal microbiota, immune responses, and antioxidant activity (Bidarnamani et al. 2015; Bederska-Lojewska et al. 2017; Mahfuz et al. 2020; Lima et al. 2021). Similar results have also been observed in other types of meat industries, such as duck, goose, quail, and turkey (Bederska-Lojewska et al. 2017).

Regardless of whether birds ingest fungi naturally or artificially in the industry, mycophagy occurs. There are few studies that demonstrate the interactions, nutritional benefits, behavior, and foraging of birds that include fungi in their diet. The study aims to compile and analyze literature data on the mycophagy of birds to investigate the habit and habitat aspects of this interaction. Furthermore, it aims to compile the benefits associated with including fungi in poultry industry diets.

Material and Methods

Bibliographic survey

A bibliographic review was conducted on bird and fungi species involved in mycophagy, which have been published in scientific articles, reports, book citations, and digital public platforms such as Web of Science (<https://www.webofscience.com>) and Google Scholar (<https://scholar.google.com>). The keywords “aves”, “birds”, “fungi”, “mushroom”, “mycophagy”, “fungivory”, and “poultry farming” were utilized. Data pertaining to interactions and food in natural or industrial environments were collected. This study cites information from the literature that involves identified or unidentified species, as well as fungi taxonomic groups.

Statistical analysis of the foraging habits and fungi habitat

A file in Excel format (Walkenbach 2010) containing binary data was compiled to analyze the foraging habits of birds and fungi habitats. The graphs were elaborated using the R v.3.6 program (Ihaka & Gentleman 1996) and presented in percentage values (habitat/habit). Birds were classified as terrestrial or arboreal foragers (Gill et al. 2022), and the fungi were designated as terrestrial for those growing on soil, and arboreal for those growing on wood (Putzke & Putzke 2017, 2019).

Foraging habit and habitat characteristics were categorized into four categories: Partial Foraging on Ground (PFG); Major Ground Foraging (MGF); Partial Arboreal Foraging (PAF); and Major Arboreal Foraging (MAF). In addition, two positions were tested: Predominant Vertical Position (PVP) and Predominant Horizontal Position (PHP). Two categories of fungi were tested according to their habitat: Terrestrial Habitat (TH) and Arboreal Habitat (AH). The characteristics of species and the percentages were calculated in the model by Fávero & Belfiore (2017).

Results and Discussion

Records of the interaction between birds and fungi in the literature

This bibliographic review study found reports of 64 bird species interacting with fungi in the wild. However, only 32 birds had the consumed fungi species fully identified. A total of 29 families belonging to Bucerotiformes, Casuariformes, Charadriiformes, Dinornithiformes, Galliformes, Passeriformes, Piciformes, Psittaciformes and Trogoniformes were cataloged (Tab. S1, available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). In the literature, the consumption of fungi by birds is commonly described in imprecise ways, not identifying the fungi species involved. Regarding the fungi, only 32 species belonging to 17 families of Cyttariales, Pezizales, Polyporales, Hymenochaetales, Russulales, Boletales, and Agaricales were identified (Tab. S1, available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>).

Many incomplete instances of associations between birds and fungi have been documented in the literature. In Table S1 (available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>), fungi that were not properly identified are classified according to class, order, family, and genus. Despite the need for further evidence to refute or support these claims, it is important to cite them as they provide a foundation for future studies. Additionally, taxonomic identification of fungi can be challenging due to their complexity. Moreover, many cited reports refer to observations made by ornithologists or naturalists regarding feeding behavior or the utilization of fungi as a resource, particularly in relation to nest excavation.

Observational reports comprise the majority of studies on the interaction between birds and fungi. In relation the mycophagy, many reports in the literature describe birds foraging near the presence of fungi. As for nest excavation, the birds are reported using trees with fungi present. The studies that involved DNA sampling and gastrointestinal analysis were not specifically conducted to investigate mycophagy, although they were mentioned due to the significance of the results. The study of this interaction generally requires collaboration because many reports involving birds do not correctly identify the fungi involved. It is difficult to understand how the Aves-Fungi interaction occurs when the fungi are not identified. Which fungi species are consumed by birds, or which fungi are involved in the nest excavation process, for example, remain unclear.

Birds foraging behavior and its fungal associations

A summary of the main relationships between birds’ foraging habits and fungi habitats for the identified species is shown in Figure 1. The foraging and mycophagy habits of birds indicate that species of the orders Galliformes and Bucerotiformes consume terrestrial fungi during foraging. The horizontal position on the ground during foraging is predominant in Galliformes, as reported by Schutz et al. (2001) and Trupkiewicz et al. (2018). In this group, Gallus gallus has reportes in mycophagy with Armillaria gallica, Entoloma abortivum, and Hypholoma lateritium (Elliott & Vernes 2019). Laccocephalum mylittae has also been associated with Malleefowl (Leipoa ocellata), and Lentinula lateritia has been found in the diet of Australian brushturkey (Alectura lathami) (Benshemesh 1992; Reichelt & May 1997; Simpson 1998, 2000). It is important to emphasize that all the mushrooms mentioned above are edible and grow in soil (Miller & Miller 2006), and that the birds are ground foragers.

Most studied Passeriformes consume terrestrial fungi as part of their diet, with a small proportion consuming arboreal fungi. According to Martin (2017), Passeriformes adopt both horizontal and vertical foraging positions, and their habits are highly diverse. Agaricus campestris is an edible species that grows in the ground (Putzke & Putzke 2017) and has been associated with the mycophagy behavior of Corvus brachyrhynchos, a bird that forages in the soil (Webster 1902; Kilpatrick 2003). Additionally, Cormobates leucophaea is an arboreal forager that primarily forages vertically (Christidis et al. 2008). The species was reported in mycophagy with Laetiporus portentosus (Maurer et al. 2017), an edible medicinal mushroom that grows on wood (Fuller et al. 2005).

The Psittaciformes are primarily insectivorous and frugivorous, adopting a wide variety of foraging positions. Alisterus scapularis, for example, has been observed in a horizontal position during foraging (Plant et al. 2020). There have been records of this bird feeding on Cyttaria gunnii (Elliott & Elliot 2019), which forms globose structures on the branches of the host tree resembling fruit silhouettes. These structures are also edible and orange in color (Leonard 2017). Trogon surrucura (Trogoniforme) is both a frugivore and an insectivore with extensive foraging abilities, both terrestrially and arboreally, in a variety of vertical and horizontal positions (Sarquis et al. 2017). Birds of this species has been reported feeding on Fomes fasciatus, a fungus that grows on tree trunks (Cockle et al. 2012).

To Jusino et al. (2015), Piciformes, especially woodpeckers, prefer to excavate trees infected with lignicolous fungi because the excavated material is easily accessible. The compounds lignin and cellulose confer greater resistance to the cell wall of plants, but they are degraded by fungi. The “Tree Selection Theory” proposes that woodpeckers prefer these trees due to the ease of excavation (Jusino et al. 2015). During the study conducted with Picoides borealis, over 50 species of fungi were associated with the bird’s preference for choosing trees to excavate (Jusino et al. 2016). However, there is a gap to be filled in relation to mycophagy involving woody fungi in particular within this bird’s group. Despite this, it is important to mention a correlation to a preference for excavating nests in places where wood fungus occurs. In the future, this group could be further analyzed regarding the presence or absence of mycophagy activities. However, it is reasonable to infer that they act as dispersal agents since they coexist with the sites where wood fungi are present.

Figure 1
Interactions of birds with fungi. The pizza graphs show the percentages for each listed category and the silhouettes of the birds are represented according to the species in this study. The arrows indicate the trend of horizontal or vertical position during foraging. PVP = predominant vertical position; PHP = predominant horizontal position. Legends Aves: PFG = partial foraging in ground; MGF = major ground foraging; PAF = partial arboreal foraging; MAF = major arboreal foraging. Legends Fungi: TH = terrestrial habitat; AH = arboreal habitat. * = Picidae (Piciformes) with fungal associations detected in the nests of birds. Source: Authors (2023).

There is a wide variety of behaviors that birds may display during their foraging activities, which can be characterized as opportunistic, incidental, or even compulsory interactions with food sources. Various strategies can be employed, including considering the characteristics of prey biomass (LeBrasseur 1969), the ease of capturing or manipulating prey, the duration of foraging, as well as the presence of predators or competitors during the activity (Brink & Dean 1966). In this regard, one of the advantages of including fungi in birds’ diets is the lack of an escape response by the prey (Samson et al. 2019). The literature does not describe the specific strategies used for mycophagy, which poses an important question for future research. However, our data collection provides evidence that arboreal foragers consume fungi from the same habitat/substrate, or have some form of association with them, such as when they excavate nests. Conversely, terrestrial foragers tend to include or interact with soil fungi.

Optimal Foraging Theory explains that diet follows certain concepts: I) The occurrence of predators is independent of the abundance of prey; II) The predator may not specialize in unprofitable prey; III) There is not take of food by partial preference; IV) Encounter and capture rates are sequential, and not simultaneous (Helfman 1990). Homogeneous environments in food distribution are rare while heterogeneous environments generally predominate. In order to be effective foragers, species must establish a favorable cost-benefit relationship (Adamík et al. 2003). Based on these results, further exploration of bird mycophagy should be undertaken in the future. It is worth noting that Galliformes do not forage in trees but may roost in them. Passeriformes adopt an intermediate position during foraging, often perching pointed downward constantly. Piciformes, Psittaciformes, Bucerotiformes, and Trogoniformes spend most of their time perched but also feed on the ground.

The use of mushrooms in poultry farming

The results of studies on the feeding efficiency of mushrooms in broiler chickens are presented in Table S2 (available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). There are some species of mushrooms that are consumed more frequently, such as Agaricus bisporus, also known as champignons. Due to its nutritional value, insects, reptiles, birds, mammals and humans consume this species (Azevedo & Barata 2018). Increasingly, mushrooms are becoming popular not only for their nutritional value but also as nutraceuticals used in the meat industry, particularly in poultry (Bederska-Lojewska et al. 2017). Studies have shown that mushrooms have a positive effect on feeding, resulting in increased body mass and improved meat quality (Camay 2016; Yan et al. 2018; Ilyina et al. 2020).

Studies in aviculture indicate promising results when fungi are added to diets. In natural environments, species of fungi that have been reported in mycophagy with birds, as well as with other taxonomic groups, are included in the poultry industry’s diet (Azevedo & Barata 2018). For example, Agaricus has been reported as food in mycophagy by birds of the Corvidae and Muscicapidae families (Tab. S1, available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). In the industry, the same genus is used to feed Phasianidae and Anatidae (Tab. S2, available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). Clearly, these avian groups have a significant commercial interest, but Agaricus also has associations of mycophagy with other birds in the wild. Unpublished studies have demonstrated the nutritional and immunological benefits of consuming fungal species that are already classified as edible in the diets of avian species (Guo et al. 2004; Camay 2016; Mahfuz et al. 2020). These results can naturally occur in mycophagy associations of wild birds.

Poultry farming is constantly confronted with the use of antibiotics for bacteria control (Camay 2016). Recent studies have shown an increased use of fungi in pathogen control in recent years, as avian species develop resistance to drugs (Mahfuz et al. 2020). An example of this argument is the study by Guo et al. (2004), which used extracts of Lentinula edodes and Tremella fuciformis to control bacterial infection caused by the pathogen Mycoplasma gallisepticum in broilers. An effect similar to the antibiotic Apramycin was observed, along with a benefit to intestinal flora when the extract of these fungi was used (Guo et al. 2004) (Tab. S2, available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). There has been a description of Alectura lathami engaging in mycophagy with Lentinula lateritia (Simpson 1998, 2000), a fungus of the same genus, but in the wild (Tab. S1, available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). Although Tremella fuciformis is not associated with mycophagy in wild birds, it is an edible species (Stamets 2000).

In studies with broilers, diets supplemented with Pleurotus ostreatus, Agaricus bisporus, Flammulina velutipes, and Lentinula edodes showed health benefits (Tab. S2, available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). Supplementation resulted in improvements in growth, better meat quality, and a reduction in bacterial infections (Camay 2016; Mahfuz et al. 2020). Additionally, the inclusion of fungal supplements in broiler feed led to a significant decline in Escherichia coli infections in the group with the supplemented diet (Shang et al. 2014). In the study by Hines et al. (2013), supplementation with mushrooms also led to an increase in the populations of Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. which are beneficial to the intestinal tract.

The inclusion of Agaricus blazei as a powdered extract in broiler feed resulted in significant reductions in serum cholesterol levels (Fanhani et al. 2016). Additionally, the addition of Pleurotus ostreatus to broiler diets significantly decreased serum triglyceride concentrations (Toghyani et al. 2012). In this premise, Kavyani et al. (2012) reported an increase in antibody production in the blood cells of chickens fed these mushrooms compared to the control group. Birds naturally consume mushrooms of this genus during foraging activities (Tab. S1, available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). However, the benefits associated with mycophagy have been studied primarily in the avian industry, but they can also occur in nature.

In poultry farming, the study is also exploring the use of fungi diets in other species, such as ducks (Anser anser), geese (Cairina moschata), quail (Coturnix coturnix), and turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo). The results of fungi supplementation in these groups are presented in Table S2 (available on supplementary material <10.6084/m9.figshare.26008204>). In general, both the fungal and avian industries are developing products which can provide low-cost feed and better nutritional value (Bederska-Lojewska et al. 2017).

The main benefits associated with the inclusion of fungi in poultry farming are improved nutritional retention, enhanced performance of the intestinal tract, and increased production of antibodies. There are variations in physiological responses among poultry species due to the diversity and composition of mushrooms in their diets. Further research is crucial to investigate dosage, preparation methods, and the inclusion of new fungal species in avian diets. Currently, there are only study results demonstrating how avians respond nutritionally to the inclusion of fungi in their diet. Considering that mycophagy occurs naturally, these studies could serve as a foundation for future research.

The association of birds with fungi in their diet or interactions, such as nest building, is important for natural ecosystems and should be further explored in the future. Numerous benefits have been mentioned regarding the inclusion of mushrooms in poultry farming, which can also be applicable for studying wild species based on their potential. There are several unidentified species of fungi reported in these associations, and inaccurate reports should be reviewed in the future. Conversely, research in the poultry industry has demonstrated the advantages of supplementing avian diets with fungi.

Considering the presence of fungi in all ecosystems, especially before the emergence of birds, suggests that mycophagy may have been very ancient. Additionally, the foraging behavior of birds should be analyzed in relation to the occurrence of fungi to gain a deeper understanding of the correlation. Several intrinsic and extrinsic factors may contribute to a better understanding of the interaction between birds and fungi in feeding. Avian associations with mycophagy represent an emerging field, and this review can serve as a foundation for further studies in this area.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the Laboratório de Taxonomia de Fungos from Universidade Federal do Pampa, the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Rio Grande do Sul (FAPERGS) for the resources granted by project number 21/2551-0001985-9, the Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa (CNPq) for the resources granted by process number 405564/2022-8, and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.

Data availability statement

In accordance with Open Science communication practices, the authors inform that all data are available within the manuscript.

References

• Abro R, Changezi GA, Abro SH, Yasmin A, Leghari RA, Rizwana H & Lochi GM (2016) Carcass and digestibility patterns fed different levels of mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) in the diet of broiler. Science International 28: 3-18.
• Adamík P, Kornan M & Vojtek J (2003) The effect of habitat structure on guild patterns and the foraging strategies of insectivorous birds in forests. Biologia-Bratislava 58: 275-286.
• Aitken KE & Martin K (2004) Nest cavity availability and selection in aspen conifer groves in a grassland landscape. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34: 2099-2109.
• Alsheikh AM & Trappe JM (1983) Taxonomy of Phaeangium lefebvrei, a desert truffle eaten by birds. Canadian Journal of Botany 61: 1919-1925.
• Al-Tikriti SS & Al-Douri AHI (2019) The effect of the adding Ganoderma lucidum fungus powder in the production performance for the brown Japanese quail bird. Scopus Ijphrd Citation Score 10: 675-682.
• Al-Zuhariy MTB & Hassan WH (2017) Hepatoprotective and immunostimulatory effect of ganoderma, andrographolide and turmeric against aflatoxicosis in broiler chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science16: 281-287.
• Andreev AV (1978) Winter energy-balance and hypothermia of the Siberian Jay. Soviet Journal of Ecology 9: 352-357.
• Asadi-Dizaji A, Aghdam Shahryar H & Maheri-Sis N (2017) Effect of levels of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) on performance and blood biochemical characteristics in Japanese quails (Coturnix coturnix). Iranian Journal of Applied Animal Science 7: 687-691.
• Asadi-Dizaji A, Shahryar H, Tili AN, Maheri-Sis N & Ghiasi GJ (2014) Effect of common mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) Levels on growth performance and carcass yields of Japanese quails (Coturnix coturnix Japonica). Bulletin of Environment, Pharmacology and Life Sciences 3: 1-5.
• Azevedo E & Barata M (2018) Diversidade no reino Fungi e aplicações à indústria. Revista de Ciência Elementar 6: 70-77.
• Bailey FM (1904) Additional notes on the birds of the upper Pecos. The Auk 21: 349-363.
• Beddall BG (1957) Historical notes on avian classification. Systematic Zoology 6: 129-136.
• Bederska-Lojewska D, Świątkiewicz S & Muszyńska B (2017) The use of Basidiomycota mushrooms in poultry nutrition - a review. Animal Feed Science and Technology 230: 59-69.
• Beever RE & Lebel T (2014) Truffles of New Zealand: a discussion of bird dispersal characteristics of fruit bodies. Journal of the Auckland Botanical Society 69: 170-178.
• Benshemesh J (1992) The conservation ecology of Malleefowl, with particular regard to fire. Doctoral dissertation. Monash University, Melbourne. Pp. 214-218.
• Berbee ML & Taylor JW (2010) Dating the molecular clock in fungi-how close are we? Fungal Biology Reviews 24: 1-16.
• Bertsch C & Barreto GR (2008) Diet of the yellow-knobbed curassow in the central Venezuelan llanos. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 120: 767-777.
• Bidarnamani E, Shargh MS, Dastar B & Daran SZ (2015) Effect of different levels of Agaricus bisporus mushroom waste with and without prebiotic on meat quality of broiler chickens. Advances in Environmental Biology 9: 421-427.
• Bidarnamani E, Shargh MS, Dastar B & Daran SZ (2015) Effect of different levels of Agaricus bisporus mushroom waste with and without prebiotic on meat quality of broiler chickens. Advances in Environmental Biology 9: 421-427.
• Blanc LA & Martin K (2012) Identifying suitable woodpecker nest trees using decay selection profiles in trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides). Forest Ecology and Management 286: 192-202.
• Boast AP, Weyrich LS, Wood JR, Metcalf JL, Knight R & Cooper A (2018) Coprolites reveal ecological interactions lost with the extinction of New Zealand birds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115: 1546-1551.
• Brink CH & Dean FC (1966) Spruce seed as a food of red squirrels and flying squirrels in interior Alaska. The Journal of Wildlife Management 30: 503-12.
• Brown CP (1946) Food of Maine ruffed grouse by seasons and cover types. The Journal of Wildlife Management 10: 17-28.
• Caiafa MV, Jusino MA, Wilkie AC, Díaz IA, Sieving KE & Smith ME (2021) Discovering the role of Patagonian birds in the dispersal of truffles and other mycorrhizal fungi. Current Biology 31: 5558-5570.
• Camay MR (2016) Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) waste powder: its influence on the growth and meat quality of broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). World Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 98-108.
• Chang SC, Lin MJ, Chao YP, Chiang CJ, Jea YS & Lee TT (2016) Effects of spent mushroom compost meal on growth performance and meat characteristics of grower geese. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia 45: 281-287.
• Chanjula P & Cherdthong A (2018) Effects of spent mushroom Cordyceps militaris supplementation on apparent digestibility, rumen fermentation, and blood metabolite parameters of goats. Journal of Animal Science 96: 1150-1158.
• Christidis L, Boles WE & Boles W (2008) Systematics and taxonomy of Australian birds. Csiro Publishing. Melbourne. Pp. 208-210.
• Chumkam S & Jintasataporn O (2011) Effect of enokitake mushroom extracts supplementation in broiler diets on meat quality. In: SAADC 2011 strategies and challenges for sustainable animal agriculture-crop systems, Vol. III: full papers. Proceedings of the 3^rd International Conference on sustainable animal agriculture for developing countries, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand, 26-29 July, 2011. Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima. Pp. 341-345.
• Clout MN, Gaze PD, Hay JR & Karl BJ (1986) Habitat use and spring movements of New Zealand pigeons at Lake Rotoroa, Nelson Lakes National Park. Notornis 33: 37-44.
• Cockle KL, Martin K & Robledo G (2012) Linking fungi, trees, and hole-using birds in a Neotropical tree-cavity network: pathways of cavity production and implications for conservation. Forest Ecology and Management 264: 210-219.
• Conner RN & Locke BA (1982) Fungi and red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees. The Wilson Bulletin 94: 64-70.
• Conner RN, Miller JR, Orson K & Adkisson CS (1976) Woodpecker dependence on trees infected by fungal heart rots. The Wilson Bulletin 88: 575-581.
• Conner RN & O’Halloran KA (1987) Cavity-tree selection by red-cockaded woodpeckers as related to growth dynamics of southern pines. The Wilson Bulletin 99: 398-412.
• Conner RN, Rudolph DC, Saenz D & Schaefer RR (1994) Heartwood, sapwood, and fungal decay associated with red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees. The Journal of Wildlife Management 58: 728-734.
• Costa AL, Lopes CF, Avila Heberle M & Putzke J (2022) The bird shiny cowbirds (Molothrus bonariensis) in a relationship interesting of mycophagy with the mushroom Macrolepiota bonaerensis in the brazilian pampa biome. Studies in Multidisciplinary Review 3: 153-167.
• Crockett AB & Hadow HH (1975) Nest site selection by Williamson and red-naped sapsuckers. The Condor 77: 365-368.
• Crome FHJ (1976) Some observations on the biology of the cassowary in northern Queensland. Emu 76: 8-14.
• Daily GC (1993) Heartwood decay and vertical distribution of red-naped sapsucker nest cavities. The Wilson Bulletin 105: 674-679.
• Dalloul RA, Lillehoj HS, Lee JS, Lee SH & Chung KS (2006) Immunopotentiating effect of a Fomitella fraxinea-derived lectin on chicken immunity and resistance to coccidiosis. Poultry science 85: 446-451.
• Demeterová M, Šamudovská A, Faixová Z, Maková Z, Piešová E & Bujňák L (2012) Purified β-glucan from oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus L.) in the diets for chickens: performance, mucus formation and fermentation in the caecum. Folia Veterinaria 56: 45-46.
• Dennis JV (1969) The yellow-shafted flicker (Colaptes auratus) on Nantucket Island, Massachusetts. Bird-banding 40: 290-308.
• Díaz S, Hitzberger T & Peris S (2012) Food resources and reproductive output of the Austral parakeet (Enicognathus ferrugineus) in forests of northern Patagonia. Emu - Austral Ornithology 112: 234-243.
• Díaz S & Kitzberger T (2006) High Nothofagus flower consumption and pollen emptying in the southern South American austral parakeet (Enicognathus ferrugineus). Austral Ecology 31: 759-766.
• Dobkin DS, Rich AC, Pretare JA & Pyle WH (1995) Nest-site relationships among cavity-nesting birds of riparian and snowpocket aspen woodlands in the northwestern Great Basin. The Condor 97: 694-707.
• Doerr ED & Doerr VA (2002) Utilization of nectar and other non-insect food resources by treecreepers. Corella 26: 22-23.
• Dutton CS & Bolen EG (2000) Fall diet of a relict pheasant population in North Carolina. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 116: 41-48.
• Edworthy AB, Wiebe KL & Martin K (2012) Survival analysis of a critical resource for cavity-nesting communities: patterns of tree cavity longevity. Ecological Applications 22: 1733-1742.
• Elliott TF & Marshall PA (2016) Animal-fungal interactions 1: notes on bowerbird’s use of Fungi. Australian Zoologist 38: 59-61.
• Elliott TF & Vernes K (2019) Superb Lyrebird Menura novaehollandiae mycophagy, truffles and soil disturbance. Ibis 161: 198-204.
• Elliott TF & Vernes K (2021) Camera trap detection of mycophagy among co-occurring vertebrates. Austral Ecology 46: 496-500.
• Ellison L (1966) Seasonal foods and chemical analysis of winter diet of Alaskan spruce grouse. The Journal of Wildlife Management 30: 729-735.
• Ericson PG, Anderson CL & Britton T (2006) Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. Biology Letters 2: 543-547.
• Fanhani JC, Murakami AE, Guerra AFQG, Nascimento GR, Pedroso RB & Alves MCF (2016) Effect of Agaricus blazei in the diet of broiler chickens on immunity, serum parameters and antioxidant activity. Semina: Ciências Agrárias 37: 2235-2246.
• Fard SH, Toghyani M & Tabeidian SA (2014) Effect of oyster mushroom wastes on performance, immune responses and intestinal morphology of broiler chickens. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture 3: 141-146.
• Fávero LP & Belfiore P (2017) Manual de análise de dados: estatística e modelagem multivariada com Excel^®, SPSS^® e Stata^® Elsevier Brasil, São Paulo. Pp. 196-202.
• Franceschi PFD & Boag DA (1991) Summer foraging by spruce grouse: implications for galliform food habits. Canadian Journal of Zoology 69: 1708-1711.
• Fuller R, Buchanan P & Roberts M (2005) Medicinal uses of fungi by New Zealand Maori people. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 7: 202-212.
• Galante TE, Horton TR & Swaney DP (2011) 95% of basidiospores fall within 1 m of the cap: a field-and modeling-based study. Mycologia 103: 1175-1183.
• Giannenas I, Tontis D, Tsalie E, Chronis EF, Doukas D & Kyriazakis I (2010a) Influence of dietary mushroom Agaricus bisporus on intestinal morphology and microflora composition in broiler chickens. Research in Veterinary Science 89: 78-84.
• Giannenas I, Pappas IS, Mavridis S, Kontopidis G, Skoufos J & Kyriazakis I (2010b) Performance and antioxidant status of broiler chickens supplemented with dried mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) in their diet. Poultry science 89: 303-311.
• Giannenas I, Tsalie E, Chronis EF, Mavridis S, Tontis D & Kyriazakis I (2011) Consumption of Agaricus bisporus mushroom affects the performance, intestinal microbiota composition and morphology, and antioxidant status of turkey poults. 165: 218-229.
• Gill F, Donsker D & Rasmussen P (2022) IOC world bird list. Vol. X. DOI: 10.14344/ioc.ml.11.2
  » https://doi.org/10.14344/ioc.ml.11.2
• Golan JJ & Pringle A (2017) Long-distance dispersal of fungi. Microbiology Spectrum 5: 5-4.
• Greensmith A (1975) Some field notes on Melanesian Psittaciformes. New Guinea Bird Society Newsletter 114: 9-12.
• Guimarães JB, Santos ÉC, Dias ES, Bertechini AG, Silva ÁCL & Dias FS (2014) Performance and meat quality of broiler chickens that are fed diets supplemented with Agaricus brasiliensis mushrooms. Tropical animal health and production 46: 1509-1514.
• Guo FC, Williams BA, Kwakkel RP, Li HS, Li XP, Luo JY & Verstegen MWA (2004) Effects of mushroom and herb polysaccharides, as alternatives for an antibiotic, on the cecal microbial ecosystem in broiler chickens. Poultry science 83: 175-182.
• Harding SR (1997) The dynamics of cavity excavation and use by the red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis). PhD thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg. Pp. 130-133.
• Harestad AS & keisker DG (1989) Nest tree use by primary cavity-nesting birds in south central British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Zoology 67: 1067-1073.
• Hart JH & Hart DL (2001) Heartrot fungi’s role in creating picid nesting sites in living aspen. In: Shepperd WD, Binkley D, Bartos DL, Stohlgren TJ & Eskew LG (eds.) Sustaining aspen in western landscapes: symposium proceedings. USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-18. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins. Pp. 207-213.
• Hartwig CL, Eastman DS & Harestad AS (2004) Characteristics of pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) cavity trees and their patches on southeastern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 187: 225-234.
• Hastings S & Mottram JC (1914) Observations upon the edibility of fungi for rodents. Transactions of the British Mycological Society 5: 364-378.
• Helfman GS (1990) Mode selection and mode switching in foraging animals. Advances in the Study of Behavior 19: 249-298.
• Hines V, Willis WL, Isikhuemhen OS, Ibrahim SL, Anike F & Jackson J (2013) Effect of incubation time and level of fungus myceliated grain supplemented diet on the growth and health of broiler chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science 12: 206-211.
• Hooper RG, Lennartz MR & Muse HD (1991) Heart rot and cavity tree selection by red-cockaded woodpeckers. The Journal of Wildlife Management 55: 323-327.
• Hooper RG (1988) Longleaf pines used for cavities by red-cockaded woodpeckers. The Journal of Wildlife Management 52: 392-398.
• Horton TR (2017) Spore dispersal in ectomycorrhizal fungi at fine and regional scales. Biogeography of Mycorrhizal Symbiosis 230: 61-78.
• Horton TR, Swaney DP & Galante TE (2013) Dispersal of ectomycorrhizal basidiospores: the long and short of it. 105: 1623-1626.
• Hyde KD, Jeewon R, Chen YJ, Bhunjun CS, Calabon MS, Jiang HB & Lumyong S (2020) The numbers of fungi: is the descriptive curve flattening? Fungal Diversity 103: 219-271.
• Ihaka R & Gentleman R (1996) R: a language for data analysis and graphics. Journal of computational and graphical statistics 5: 299-314.
• Ilyina G, Ilyin D, Oshkina L & Ostapchuk A (2020) The effect of feed additives based on the mycelium of the fungi Ganoderma lucidum and Laetiporus sulphureus on the physiological and biochemical parameters of poultry blood. Scientific Papers, Series D, Animal Science 63: 107-111.
• Ivereigh O (2001) A pygmy parrot surprise: Micropsitta bruijnii bruijnii extends its range to Seram. AFA Watchbird 28: 20-20.
• Jackson JA (1977) Red-cockaded woodpeckers and pine red heart disease. The Auk 94: 160-163.
• Jusino MA, Hagemeyer ND, Banik MT, Palmer JM, Lindner DL, Smith ME & Walters EL (2022) Fungal communities associated with acorn woodpeckers and their excavations. Fungal Ecology 101154: 1-7.
• Jusino MA, Lindner DL, Banik MT, Rose KR & Walters JR (2016) Experimental evidence of a symbiosis between red-cockaded woodpeckers and fungi. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 283: 1827-1845.
• Jusino MA, Lindner DL, Banik MT & Walters JR (2015) Heart rot hotel: fungal communities in red-cockaded woodpecker excavations. Fungal Ecology 14: 33-43.
• Jusino MA, Lindner DL, Cianchetti JK, Grisé AT, Brazee NJ & Walters JR (2014) A minimally invasive method for sampling nest and roost cavities for fungi: a novel approach to identify the fungi associated with cavity-nesting birds. Acta Ornithologica 49: 233-242.
• Kavyani A & PorReza J (2012) Evaluation of dried powder of mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) as an antibiotic growth promoter substitution on performance, carcass traits and humoral immune responses in broiler chickens. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 6: 94-100.
• Keisker DG (1986) Nest tree selection by primary cavity-nesting birds in south-central British Columbia. Masters Thesis. Simon Fraser University, Ottawa. Pp. 80-83.
• Kilham L & O’Brien P (1979) Early breeding behavior of Lineated Woodpeckers. The Condor 81: 299-303.
• Kilham L (1968) Reproductive behavior of hairy woodpeckers II. Nesting and habitat. The Wilson Bulletin 80: 286-305.
• Kilham L (1971) Reproductive behavior of yellow-bellied sapsuckers I. Preference for nesting in Fomes-infected aspens and nest hole interrelations with flying squirrels, raccoons, and other animals. The Wilson Bulletin 83: 159-171.
• Kilpatrick AM (2003) The impact of thermoregulatory costs on foraging behaviour: a test with American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and eastern grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis). Evolutionary Ecology Research 5: 781-786.
• Kittams WH (1943) October foods of ruffed grouse in Maine. The Journal of Wildlife Management 7: 231-233.
• Laessle AM & Frye OE (1956) A food study of the Florida bobwhite Colinus virginianus floridanus (Coues). The Journal of Wildlife Management 20: 125-131.
• Lay DW & Russel DN (1970) Notes on the Red-cockaded Woodpecker in Texas. The Auk 87: 781-786.
• LeBrasseur RJ (1969) Growth of juvenile chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keto) under different feeding regimes. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 26: 1631-1645.
• Lee MS, Cau A, Naish D & Dyke GJ (2014) Morphological clocks in paleontology, and a mid-Cretaceous origin of crown Aves. Systematic Biology 63: 442-449.
• Leonard P (2017) Eating wild fungi in Australia. Australia’s fungi mapping scheme. Fungimap Newsletter 57: 4-6.
• Ligon JD (1971) Some factors influencing numbers of the red-cockaded woodpecker. In: The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker. Vol. 188. Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife and Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee. Pp. 30-43.
• Lima GAD, Barbosa BFDS, Araújo RGAC, Polidoro BR, Polycarpo GV, Zied DC & Cruz-Polycarpo VC (2021) Agaricus subrufescens and Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms as alternative additives to antibiotics in diets for broilers challenged with Eimeria spp. British Poultry Science 62: 251-260.
• Liu T, Ma Q, Zhao L, Jia R, Zhang J, Ji C & Wang X (2016) Protective effects of sporoderm-broken spores of Ganderma lucidum on growth performance, antioxidant capacity and immune function of broiler chickens exposed to low level of aflatoxin B1. Toxins 8: 278-288.
• Lorenz TJ, Vierling KT, Johnson TR & Fischer PC (2015) The role of wood hardness in limiting nest site selection in avian cavity excavators. Ecological Applications 25: 1016-1033.
• Losin N, Floyd CH, Schweitzer TE & Keller SJ (2006) Relationship between aspen heartwood rot and the location of cavity excavation by a primary cavity-nester, the red-naped sapsucker. The Condor 108: 706-710.
• Mahfuz SU, Long SF & Piao XS (2020) Role of medicinal mushroom on growth performance and physiological responses in broiler chicken. World’s Poultry Science Journal 76: 74-90.
• Martin GR (2017) What drives bird vision? Bill control and predator detection overshadow flight. Frontiers in Neuroscience 11: 619-635.
• Martin K, Aitken KE & Wiebe KL (2004) Nest sites and nest webs for cavity-nesting communities in interior British Columbia, Canada: nest characteristics and niche partitioning. The Condor 106: 5-19.
• Maurer CN, Maurer G & Reaney LT (2017) White-throated treecreeper Cormobates leucophaea feeding on bracket fungus. Australian Field Ornithology 34: 10-11.
• McClelland BR, Frissell SS, Fischer WC & Halvorson CH (1979) Habitat management for hole-nesting birds in forests of western larch and Douglas-fir. Journal of Forestry 77: 480-483.
• McClelland BR & McClelland PT (1999) Pileated woodpecker nest and roost trees in Montana: links with old-growth and forest” health”. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27: 846-857.
• Mcgowan JD (1973) Fall and winter foods of ruffed grouse in interior Alaska. The Auk 90: 636-640.
• Mckeown KC (1934) The food of birds from south-western New South Wales. Records of the Australian Museum 19: 113-135.
• Medway DG (2000) Mycophagy by north island robin. Australas Mycol 19: 102-121.
• Miller E, Partridge AD & Bull EL (1979) The relationship of primary cavity nesters and decay. Trans Northeastern Section Wildlife Society 36: 60-68.
• Miller HA (1969) Fleshy fungi commonly eaten by southern wildlife. Southern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture, Asheville. Pp. 13-15.
• Miller OK & Miller H (2006) North American mushrooms: a field guide to edible and inedible fungi. Falcon Guide, Guilford. Pp. 11-12.
• Mršić G, Njari B, Srečec S, Petek MJ, Fleck ŽC, Živkovic M & Popović M (2013) Chemical evaluation of the quality of meat of broilers fed with the supplement from button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus Meso 15: 300-327.
• Nirmala K, Dhuria RK, SharmaT, Saini J, Kajla MP & Meena MA (2017) Effect of feeding mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) as feed additive on the performance of broiler chicks. Veterinary Practitioner 18: 122-123.
• Nuraini N, Djulardi A & Trisna A (2019) Research article palm kernel cake fermented with Lentinus edodes in the diet of quail. International Journal of Poultry Science 18: 387-392.
• O’Donnell CFJ & Dilks PJ (1994) Foods and foraging of forest birds in temperate rainforest, South Westland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 18: 87-107.
• Ogbe AO, Alu SE, Atsong M & Obeka AD (2013) Utilization of melon husk with wild mushroom (Ganoderma sp.) and enzyme supplement: effect on performance of broiler chicken. International Journal of Research Studies in Biosciences 1: 1-10.
• Olrog CC (1955) Contenidos estomacales de aves del noroeste argentino. El Hornero 10: 158-163.
• O’Malley A, Vernes K & Andrew N (2013) Spatial patterns in the distribution of truffle-like fungi, mutualistic interactions with mammals, and spore dispersal dynamics. PhD thesis. University of New England, Armidale. Pp. 45-53.
• Parks CG, Raley CM, Aubry KB & Gilbertson RL (1997) Wood decay associated with pileated woodpecker roosts in western redcedar. Plant Disease 81: 551-551.
• Pendergast BA & Boag AD (1970) Seasonal changes in diet of spruce grouse in central Alberta. The Journal of Wildlife Management 34: 605-611.
• Plant MR, Vankan D, Baxter G, Hall E & Phalen D (2020) Behaviour of two species of psittacine birds at wild bird feeding sites in Australia. DOI: <https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.27.356865>.
  » https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.27.356865
• Putzke J & Putzke MTL (2017) Cogumelos - Fungos agaricales no Brasil, famílias: Agaricaceae, Amanitaceae, Bolbitaceae, Entolomataceae, Coprinaceae, Psathyrellaceae, Crepidotaceae e Hygrophoraceae. Vol. I. Editora JP, São Gabriel. Pp. 78-85.
• Putzke J & Putzke MTL (2019) Cogumelos - Fungos agaricales no Brasil, ordens: Boletales, Polyporales, Russulales e Agaricales. Vol. II. Editora JP, São Gabriel . Pp. 187-198.
• Rand AL (1942) Results of the Archbold expeditions. No. 42: birds of the 1936-1937 New Guinea expedition. The American Museum of Natural History, New York. Pp. 777-780.
• Raphael MG & White M (1984) Use of snags by cavity-nesting birds in the Sierra Nevada. Wildlife monographs 86: 3-66.
• Rawlings GB (1956) Australasian Cyttariaceae. New Zealand Forest Service 84: 19-28.
• Reichelt RC & May TH (1997) Mallee fowl eating fungi and orchid tubers. Victorian Naturalist 114: 198-198.
• Robinson SK & Holmes RT (1982) Foraging behavior of forest birds: the relationships among search tactics, diet, and habitat structure. Ecology 63: 1918-1931.
• Rose GA & Parker GH (1983) Metal content of body tissues, diet items, and dung of ruffed grouse near the copper-nickel smelters at Sudbury, Ont. Canadian Journal of Zoology 61: 505-511.
• Rudolph D, Conner R & Schaefer R (1995) Red-cockaded woodpecker detection of red heart infection. In: Kulhavy DL, Hooper RG & Costa R (eds.) Red-cockaded woodpecker: recovery, ecology, and management. Center for Applied Studies in Forestry, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches. Pp. 338-342.
• Rudolph DC & Conner RN (1991) Cavity tree selection by red-cockaded woodpeckers in relation to tree age. The Wilson Bulletin 103: 458-467.
• Runde DE & Capen DE (1987) Characteristics of northern hardwood trees used by cavity-nesting birds. The Journal of Wildlife Management 51: 217-223.
• Saab VA & Dudley JG (1998) Responses of cavity-nesting birds to stand-replacement fire and salvage logging in ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests of southwestern Idaho. USDA Forest Service Research Paper RMRS-RP-11. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Ogden. 17p.
• Sam K, Koane B, Jeppy S, Sykorova J & Novotny V (2017) Diet of land birds along an elevational gradient in Papua New Guinea. Scientific reports 7: 1-10.
• Samson RA, Houbraken J, Thrane U, Frisvad JC & Andersen B (2019) Food and indoor fungi. Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht. Pp. 233-241.
• Sarquis JA, Valetti JA, Giraudo AR & Berduc A (2017) First records of Calidris canutus Linnaeus, 1758 (Charadriiformes, Scolopacidae) and Trogon surrucura Vieillot, 1817 (Trogoniformes, Trogonidae) for Entre Ríos province (Argentina), and noteworthy reports of other birds in protected areas. Check List 13: 1067-1073.
• Savignac C & Machtans CS (2006) Habitat requirements of the yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius, in boreal mixedwood forests of northwestern Canada. Canadian Journal of Zoology 84: 1230-1239.
• Schodde R (1977) Contributions to Papuasian ornithology. VI. Survey of the birds of southern Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea. CSIRO Division of Wildlife Research Technical Paper 34: 1-103.
• Schutz KE, Forkman B & Jensen P (2001) Domestication effects on foraging strategy, social behaviour and different fear responses: a comparison between the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) and a modern layer strain. Applied animal behaviour science 74: 1-14.
• Shang HM, Song H, Jiang YY, Ding GD, Xing YL, Niu SL & Wang LN (2014) Influence of fermentation concentrate of Hericium caput-medusae (Bull.: Fr.) Pers. on performance, antioxidant status, and meat quality in broilers. Animal Feed Science and Technology 198: 166-175.
• Shuliang Z, Yulan Z, Jinying Z, Chunhua G & Jiandong H (2016) Effects of Pleurotus eryngii residue on weight gain of chick and duck. Animal Husbandry and Feed Science 8: 358-360.
• Simpson JA (1998) Why don’t more birds eat more fungi. Australasian Mycological Newsletter 17: 67-68.
• Simpson JA (2000) More on mycophagous birds. Australasian mycologist 19: 49-51.
• Skutch AF & Eckelberry DR (1969) Life histories of Central American birds: families Cotingidae, Pipridae, Formicariidae, Furnariidae, Dendrocolaptidae, and Picidae. III. Cooper Ornithological Society, California. Pp. 473-480.
• Sohn JH, Sagara Y & Ohshima T (2015) Effects of dietary supplemaentation by hydrophilic extract from edible mashroom (Flammulina velutipes) to laying hens on oxidative stability of hen eggs. In: Proceedings of 61st International Congress of Meat Science and Technology. International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Clermont-Ferrand. Pp. 3-4.
• Stamets P (2000) Chapter 21: growth parameters for gourmet and medicinal mushroom species. Growing gourmet and medicinal mushrooms. 3rd ed. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley. Pp. 316-320.
• Steeger C & Dulisse J (2002) Characteristics and dynamics of cavity nest trees in southern British Columbia. In: Proceedings of the symposium on the ecology and management of dead wood in western forests. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report PSW-GTR-181. Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Berkeley. Pp. 275-289.
• Steirly CC (1957) Nesting ecology of the red-cockaded woodpecker in Virginia. Atlantic Naturalist 12: 280-292.
• Stewart RE (1956) Ecological study of ruffed grouse broods in Virginia. The Auk 73: 33-41.
• Tanney JB & Hutchison LJ (2011) A brief survey of mycophagy in ruffed grouse, Bonasa umbellus, from northwestern Ontario. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 125: 72-73.
• Taylor RJ & Mooney NJ (1990) Fungal feeding by a yellow-tailed black cockatoo. Corella 14: 30.
• Tiquia-Arashiro SM & Grube M (2019) Fungi in extreme environments: ecological role and biotechnological significance. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Berlin/Heidelberg. Pp. 520-525.
• Toghyani M, Tohidi M, Gheisari A, Tabeidian A & Toghyani M (2012) Evaluation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) as a biological growth promoter on performance, humoral immunity, and blood characteristics of broiler chicks. The Journal of Poultry Science 49: 183-190.
• Trupkiewicz J, Garner MM & Juan-Sallés C (2018) Passeriformes, caprimulgiformes, coraciiformes, piciformes, bucerotiformes, and apodiformes. Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals. Elsevier, London. Pp. 799-823.
• Vargas-Sánchez RD, Ibarra-Arias FJ, del Mar Torres-Martínez B, Sánchez-Escalante A & Torrescano-Urrutia GR (2019) Use of natural ingredients in Japanese quail diet and their effect on carcass and meat quality - A review. Asian-Australasian s 32: 1641-1664.
• Vargas-Sánchez RD, Velásquez-Jiménez D, Torrescano-Urrutia GR, Ibarra-Arias FJ, Portillo-Loera JJ, Rios-Rincon FG & Sanchez-Escalante A (2018) Total antioxidant activity in japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) breast, fed a supplemented diet of edible mushrooms. Biotecnia 20: 43-50.
• Walkenbach J (2010) Excel and power programming with VBA. John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey. Pp. 967-971.
• Webster H (1902) Certain eaters of mushrooms. Rhodora 4: 77-79.
• Weeks BC, Diamond J, Sweet PR, Smith C, Scoville G, Zinghite T & Filardi CE (2017) New behavioral, ecological, and biogeographic data on the montane avifauna of Kolombangara, Solomon Islands. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology : 129: 676-700.
• Williams JB, Best D & Varford C (1980) Foraging ecology of ptarmigan at Meade River, Alaska. The Wilson Bulletin 92: 341-351.
• Willis WL, Isikhuemhen OS & Ibrahim SA (2007) Performance assessment of broiler chickens given mushroom extract alone or in combination with probiotics. Poultry Science 86: 1856-1860.
• Willis WL, Wall DC, Isikhuemhen OS, Jackson JN, Ibrahim S, Hurley SL & Anike F (2013) Effect of level and type of mushroom on performance, blood parameters and natural coccidiosis infection in floor-reared broilers. The Open Mycology Journal 7: 1-6.
• Yan Z, Ma J, Duan J & Chen Q (2018) Effects of Enoki mushroom residues on growth performance, meat quality and muscle nutrient component of yellow-feathered broilers. Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition 30: 1958-1964.
• Yogeswari R, Murugesan S & Jagadeeswaran A (2012) Hepatoprotective effect of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sajor caju) in broilers fed aflatoxin. International Journal of Veterinary Science 1: 104-107.
• Zwart MH (1973) Breeding and behaviour of pilotbirds. Emu 73: 124-128.

• Area Editor:
  Dr. Mauricio Salazar-Yepes

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  22 July 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  26 June 2023
• Accepted
  14 Dec 2023