The role of green infrastructure in urban drainage: diagnosis and guidelinesAbstract
This article discusses the role of green infrastructure in urban drainage and focuses on the importance of implementing the Urban Drainage Master Plan. The methodology used in this study was based on a qualitative investigation carried out through bibliographic review, documentary research, and intensive direct observation. It was found that land-use and land-occupation problems, together with an underdimensioned drainage system, have led to several flooding episodes. This highlights the need for multidisciplinary planning, in which macro-drainage should be part of the entire urban infrastructure. Multidisciplinary planning must be compatible with other integrated public plans and projects aimed at urban water management.
Keywords
public policies; environment; environmental planning; rainwater; urbanization
Resumo
Este artigo procura discutir o papel da infraestrutura verde na drenagem urbana enfocando a importância da implantação do Plano Diretor de Drenagem Urbana. A metodologia utilizada nesta pesquisa foi baseada na investigação qualitativa, utilizando-se de levantamento bibliográfico, pesquisa documental e observação direta intensiva. Verificou-se que os problemas de uso e ocupação do solo e o subdimensionamento do sistema de drenagem levam a diversos episódios de inundação, evidenciando a necessidade de planejamento multidisciplinar, onde a macrodrenagem deve fazer parte do todo na infraestrutura urbana. O planejamento multidisciplinar deve ser compatibilizado com outros planos e projetos públicos integrados e voltados à gestão das águas urbanas.
Palavras-chave
políticas públicas; meio ambiente; planejamento ambiental; águas pluviais; urbanização
Introduction
Many Brazilian cities experience urban expansion marked by significant socio-spatial inequalities and a development model that has led to fragmented and environmentally vulnerable settlements. Contrary to the common belief that these issues result from a lack of planning, studies show that the urban challenges stem from the interplay of socioeconomic processes, urban policies, and institutional practices, which have produced an exclusionary model of urbanization (Polis Institute, 2001).
In this context, some social groups are granted access to the most desirable urban areas, while many others live in environmentally vulnerable locations, such as slopes and floodplains, which are often at risk of flooding and other hazards.
The Brazilian urban growth model, as noted by the Polis Institute (2001), results from a complex interaction of planning decisions, economic dynamics, and political practices that prioritize certain interests and restrict equitable access to urban land. Therefore, urban drainage issues, often evident in flooding events, should not be viewed solely as technical failures or planning shortcomings; they also reveal inequalities in the production and appropriation of urban space.
Maringoni (2011) emphasizes that the recurring rainfall-related disasters in Brazilian cities are often blamed on poor planning; however, they are more accurately linked to unequal access to urban land and the concentration of suitable areas within a limited real estate market. Thus, tackling urban drainage challenges requires consideration not only of technical infrastructure but also of the social, economic, and political factors that influence the production of urban space.
To address the impacts of this development, urban planning is focusing on optimizing structures through energy-efficient civil works, integrated multimodal transport, waste reduction and utilization, and improved sector integration (Tanscheit, 2016).
Tucci (1998) notes that urban concentration adversely impacts water quality by contaminating rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. According to the author, the urbanization process affects the drainage system in three ways: first, it increases flow due to impervious surfaces; second, it heightens sediment levels from exposed ground and solid waste; and third, it deteriorates water quality through street washing, solid material transport, and unlawful sewage connections (Tucci, 1998, p. 5).
Technological advancements enable cities to become smarter by integrating infrastructure systems, aiding urban growth management, and enhancing system understanding, thereby promoting sustainability through public policies.
Secchi (2016) highlights that public policies create frameworks to address societal issues through instruments such as laws and projects. The Master Plan, as an effective public policy mechanism, plays a vital role in linking urban policies with environmental management to promote sustainability in urban areas.
Public policies are crucial for regional development and support environmental preservation, conservation, and the recovery of natural and built environments, thereby aiding territorial planning and management (Arana, 2015).
This work raises important questions: What causes flooding in urban areas? How does green infrastructure help mitigate this issue? This article examines urban drainage by evaluating its causes and effects, while emphasizing the role of green infrastructure. It employs bibliographic and documentary research, qualitative analysis, and a survey conducted through direct observation.
Urban planning and the challenges of green infrastructure
Urban planning and management must adapt to the realities of highly urbanized cities, which often fragment natural landscapes. Green infrastructure has proven to be an effective solution, garnering technical and academic support in recent decades as it balances traditional urban infrastructure with the preservation of environmental services and societal needs (Schurzer, 2014).
Green infrastructure in urban areas is a multifunctional network that reshapes the landscape through permeable elements and vegetation, referred to by Herzog and Rosa (2010) as blue-green infrastructure (vegetation--water systems or drainage). This concept integrates and adapts existing infrastructure while preserving environmentally significant areas and harmonizing natural processes with urban functions (Schutzer, 2014, p. 21). Hough (2001, p. 249 – Author’s translation) highlights that green infrastructure, including “green corridors and natural areas, can serve as a framework for urban development, in contrast to traditional land use planning.”
Cormier and Pellegrino (2008) describe green infrastructure at the regional level as a network of “parks, green corridors, and preserved natural spaces.” When rooted in landscape ecology and watershed planning, these areas can form the basis for a robust green infrastructure system. Additionally, there is a need to expand natural systems to address issues related to existing urban infrastructure, particularly those concerning drainage and water quality.
Madureira (2012) describes a comprehensive concept that integrates natural areas, ensuring urban green spaces provide environmental, social, and economic benefits. The Parque do Povo is a good example, as it serves as a linear park for ecological purposes and a recreational area for the community, and contributes to an increase in property values after its establishment.
The case study of Parque do Povo in Presidente Prudente, São Paulo State, highlights environmental issues caused by poor drainage and inadequate planning without green infrastructure.
Schutzer (2014) highlights that green infrastructure is best understood through environmental infrastructure in urban areas, often viewed as isolated systems. To clarify this concept, the author provides a table detailing the structures involved (Figure 1).
Herzog and Rosa (2010) emphasize that green infrastructure should integrate nature into urban areas to mitigate issues such as heavy rainfall, heat islands, desertification, and biodiversity loss. It should also promote safe pedestrian and bicycle paths, reduce vehicle speeds, and stabilize slopes and riverbanks to prevent landslides and siltation.
Benini (2015) outlines seven key principles of green infrastructure: (1) conservation; (2) pre-execution planning; (3) connecting spaces and systems; (4) addressing multiple scales; (5) multidisciplinary approaches; (6) integration with municipal management; and (7) partnerships between public and private sectors.
Green infrastructure in urban areas can be implemented through structural and non-structural measures. Structural measures involve physical elements, whereas non- -structural measures focus on preventive actions and organizational aspects, as noted by Benini (2015). Figure 2 provides examples of both measures for urban drainage.
Cormier and Pellegrino (2008) argue that structural measures can integrate natural environmental functions into established urban landscapes. Schutzer (2014) emphasizes the crucial role of bioengineering in providing diverse structural solutions for this integration.
There are several types of green infrastructure, as described by Cormier and Pellegrino (2008). A rain garden is a permeable area treated to enhance porosity, thereby increasing its ability to absorb and filter rainwater. A bioswale, or vegetated bioretention ditch, is a linear structure that supports vegetation, absorbs rainwater, and may direct water to other systems. A stormwater lagoon is a constructed area designed to store large volumes of rainwater. Lastly, a green roof features vegetation of varying sizes and incorporates systems for rainwater retention, filtration, and storage (Figure 3).
The urban drainage system is influenced by urbanization and changes in land use. Its efficiency can be improved through suitable legislation and plans tailored to local characteristics. Additionally, green infrastructure is a key partner in balancing natural and built environments.
Ways to adapt the drainage system based on green infrastructure
In Brazil, there are already several examples of green infrastructure being used to solve urban drainage problems with satisfactory results, helping eliminate flooding in cities.
The proposal for the River Park of Duque de Caxias and Belford Roxo in Rio de Janeiro State was considered because, despite its large green areas, the park has experienced flooding. The plan aims to improve rainwater runoff through green infrastructure.
The Macro-Drainage Plan in Tupã, São Paulo State, effectively addresses urban flooding, while the waste retention device in São Caetano do Sul (São Paulo State) successfully manages municipal solid waste (MSW) in drainage systems. This solution can be adapted to other Brazilian cities, as studies show that rainwater can carry diffuse pollution that negatively impacts water bodies over time.
River Park of Duque de Caxias and Belford Roxo – Rio de Janeiro State
The Iguaçu-Sarapuí River Basin covers 727 km2, including 168 km2 for the Sarapuí River sub- -basin (Carneiro, Cardoso, & Azevedo, 2008). The region’s parks are located between Duque de Caxias and Belford Roxo in Rio de Janeiro (Figure 4).
– Proposed flood control measures for the Iguaçu-Sarapuí River basin in the municipalities of Duque de Caxias and Belford Roxo, Rio de Janeiro State
Proposals for the Iguaçu-Sarapuí river basins are outlined in Figure 4, highlighting the Amapá Riverine Urban Parks1 and the Floodable Urban Parks of Amapá, Outeiro, São Bento, and Cidade dos Meninos. These parks are essential for conserving the environment and naturally mitigating flooding risks.
Carneiro, Cardoso, and Azevedo (2008) sought, through their research on the Iguaçu Project, to identify the causes of flooding in the basin. They found that floods result from an inadequate land occupation and use process for the distinct conditions of the Baixada Fluminense region. The following aggravating factors contribute to this approach: lack of urban infrastructure, deficiencies or the absence of sanitation and solid waste collection services, deforestation of headwaters, unchecked exploitation of mineral deposits, and disordered or illegal occupation of riverbanks or floodplains. The root of these problems is always inadequate land-use legislation or, in the vast majority of cases, non-compliance with existing legislation (Carneiro, Cardoso, Azevedo, 2008).
Miguez, Veról, and Rezende (2015) found that establishing Environmental Protection Areas (EPAs), along with controlled land- -use planning and effective water resource management, positively influences flood control. Their initiative aims to coordinate dredging and restore existing waterways. Proposed measures include developing river parks to preserve riverbanks (Figure 5), enhancing water storage, and implementing non-structural strategies to regulate land use. They further highlight the importance of aligning land-use planning with the National Water Resources Policy and the National Sanitation Policy to create integrated solutions for metropolitan basin management.
Until 2015, various interventions were proposed through the Iguaçu Project, which aimed to manage urban land and promote environmental education. Suggested alternatives included constructing an upstream dam to mitigate flooding and control channel overflows, and implementing river rehabilitation and sustainable drainage measures in urban areas. Overall, the plans aimed to reverse water body degradation and improve stormwater runoff conditions (Carneiro, 2008; Miguez, Veról, & Rezende, 2015).
Macro-Drainage Plan in Tupã – SP
In 2006, the Municipal Administration of Tupã, São Paulo State, secured funding from the State Water Resources Fund (FEHIDRO) to conduct urban macro-drainage studies. These studies identified priority actions, including the Macro--Drainage Plan, which encompassed emergency phases known as the Immediate Action Plan (IAP) from 2008 to 2012 (Benini, 2015).
After discovering a lack of maintenance in the Ribeirão Afonso XIII, Cônego Rebouças, and Córrego Modelli canals, a preventive maintenance program was proposed.
The initial phase of structural measures involved constructing open-air detention reservoirs in the right and left branches of the Afonso XIII stream, along with a micro-drainage and sewage network to enhance branch lines (Benini, 2015, p. 98). The following phase, spanning from 2014 to 2027, was guided by the Continuous Action Plan (CAP) (FCTH, 2008, pp. 27-90). Benini (2015) notes that the CAP aimed to implement macro--drainage components within subdivisions and to combine both structural and non- -structural measures (intensive and extensive/compensatory) to create a sustainable urban drainage system in Tupã.
Structural measures were expected to be completed by 2025, including the Linear Parks (Ribeirão Afonso XIII, Cônego Rebouças, and Córrego Modelli), which feature grass and concrete channels, as well as the implementation of micro drainage in all new subdivisions (Benini, 2015, p. 98).
Compensatory structural measures include flood protection, enhancing urban soil permeability with green infrastructure, and connecting green spaces to flooded detention basins. Additional strategies involve infiltration plans with reservoirs and permeable pavements in streets (Benini, 2015)
Non-structural measures focus on regulating land use, implementing the Drainage Division and Soil Permeability Rate, and addressing flood insurance, monitoring, and control. They also promote the preservation of green spaces through environmental education and proper disposal of urban solid waste.
In his research, Benini (2015) found that some Continuous Action Plan (CAP) measures (scheduled for implementation from 2014 to 2027) were already initiated in 2009. These included creating a Linear Park on the Ribeirão Afonso XIII and requiring micro-drainage in new subdivisions. Compensatory measures such as green infrastructure to improve soil permeability, enhanced connectivity of green spaces, dry detention basins, permeable pavements, and erosion control were also implemented. However, non-structural measures, such as flood insurance, a warning system, and proper urban solid waste management, were not included.
In general, the CAP has shown benefits for environmental quality and the population’s quality of life, as evidenced by institutional effects and consolidated actions under the Macro-Drainage Plan.
Article 70, § 1, Items I and II, of Complementary Law n. 170/2009 mandate that developers and land subdividers create urban infrastructure – such as galleries, staircases, and dissipators – to ensure effective rainwater drainage. Additionally, they must set aside 20% of common areas for parks and gardens that can serve as sports and leisure facilities. Benini (2015, p. 162) notes that “this measure will not only establish public green spaces but also increase permeable areas in urban settings.”
Following the Macro-Drainage Plan’s recommendations, flooding-prone drainage channels, such as the Afonso XII Micro-basin, have been designated as Controlled Occupation Zones (ZOC). Complementary Law n. 170/2009 established the boundaries of Environmental Protection Areas (EPAs) for protection:
I – [...] In springs, even intermittent ones, and in so-called “water eyes”, regardless of their topographical location within the urban area, there is an environmental preservation area with a minimum radius of 50 meters;
II – Areas located within the urban area, up to a limit of 30 meters from the banks of watercourses, are considered environmental preservation areas. (Benini, 2015, p. 163)
Concerns have been raised about urbanization in the Controlled Occupation Zone (COZ), which limits new construction – residential, commercial, and industrial – and prohibits illegal dumping and waste accumulation. It also bans deforestation and requires the restoration of vegetation through tree planting.
If urban planning indices in Chart 1 are not met, a fine equal to three times the IPTU (Property Tax) will be charged for the Onerous Granting of the Right to Build, based on the affected area (§ 1°, Art. 74, Complementary Law n. 170/2009), as individual lots are essential for flood control.
Until 2015, the Sustainable Development Master Plan implemented recommendations from the Macro-Drainage Plan, enhancing urban infrastructure and environmental quality in Tupã–SP.
Solid Waste Retention Devices in São Caetano do Sul – São Paulo State
In Brazil, the buildup of municipal solid waste (MSW) in drainage networks often obstructs rainwater collection systems, allowing waste to enter the drainage and potentially causing long--term issues in receiving water bodies (Neves, 2006; Benini, 2015; Tucci, 2016).
The proposal recommends using the drainage system to retain MSW and prevent it from entering water bodies, as in São Paulo City, SP.
The implementation of waste retention devices in São Caetano do Sul – SP, was funded by FEHIDRO – the State Fund for Water Resources – in partnership with the Ministry of Cities. This initiative aimed to regulate waste disposal in the drainage network, accelerate waste removal, and improve drainage efficiency. Waste retention boxes were installed in catch basins in critical flood areas, featuring elements such as channels, grates, fastening systems, retention baskets, and side outlets (São Caetano do Sul City Hall, 2013).
The city of São Paulo, frequently affected by flooding, is implementing an advanced system of municipal solid waste (MSW) retention baskets in prone areas, as highlighted by Meneghetti (2016). These devices are monitored in real-time via cellular applications used by field teams. The test area recorded 13 flooding incidents between November and December 2015, but after installing the equipment in December, only two incidents occurred between February and March 2016 (Meneghetti, 2016).
– Retention baskets: (a) Structural composition; (b) Basket cleaning with retained municipal solid waste (MSW)
During the testing phase, the installation covered 30% of the municipality’s storm drains. Therefore, it is important to monitor and periodically clean the retention system using methods such as high-pressure water jetting and vacuum suction. Meneghetti (2016) notes that this device requires prompt maintenance, as blockages can occur on dry days, leading to flooding during heavy rain.
Development of the urban drainage master plan: some principles
A water resources master plan includes various studies, particularly those related to catchment basins. The suppression of floodplains and drainage, viewed as spatial allocation, requires relocating these areas downstream. This also holds true for the loss of infiltration areas caused by impermeable surfaces. Multidisciplinary planning is essential, integrating macro-drainage into urban infrastructure and aligning with initiatives for public services, especially urban water management. Additionally, drainage management must ensure sustainability across institutional, economic, and environmental dimensions, with flexible solutions that accommodate future modifications (Canholi, 2005; Miguez, Veról, and Rezende, 2015).
Mitchell (2005) and Almeida (2012) examine strategies to reduce the impacts of natural disasters at both local and global levels, emphasizing the role of civil defense in urban drainage research. Santos (1989, p. 22) states that planning is essential for guiding urban development by setting goals and ensuring periodic monitoring.
Barbosa (2006) states that in cases requiring flood control measures, these should be implemented preventively, that is, through zoning studies, especially in flood-prone areas.
Thus, it is understood that in order to have a Master Plan that addresses actions to prevent flooding problems in urban areas, several points should be considered, both structural and non- -structural, as presented in Chart 2.
Structural measures require substantial resources and target specific localized issues, but they remain valuable. Flood control policy should take an integrated, watershed-scale approach that combines structural and non--structural solutions with urban planning. Costs for implementing structural actions and maintaining urban drainage should be shared by property owners based on the impermeable areas they contribute, which increase runoff compared to natural conditions.
Non-structural actions introduced through legislation should incorporate the principles of the municipality’s Drainage Plan. The municipality must propose an urban drainage management strategy within its administrative framework, along with a financial mechanism to support various initiatives.
Urban drainage is part of the urban infrastructure. Thus, it must be planned in conjunction with other systems, especially the environmental control plan, sewage disposal, solid waste disposal, and traffic management.
Urban drainage planning should align with a comprehensive water management vision for cities. This ensures that municipal structures effectively manage urban water resources and guide policy. To create an effective water supply, sanitation, drainage, flood control, and waste management system, it is crucial to define the relevant geographic areas (Figure 7).
Water supply is usually obtained from sources that can be contaminated by sewage, rainwater, or solid waste. Therefore, an effective urban drainage control relies on the presence of a sewage network, while the collection and disposal of urban solid waste directly affect the quantity and quality of rainwater.
A major challenge in integrated urban drainage planning is the limited capacity of municipalities to address complex, interdisciplinary issues. These require procedures that account for the interconnections among land use, environmental management, and water resources within the urban environment and the River Basin Plan.
Final remarks
The findings indicate that urban drainage problems do not arise solely from technical limitations of existing systems but are directly associated with the Brazilian urbanization model, characterized by sociospatial inequalities, inadequate land use practices, and institutional weaknesses in urban planning. In this context, the recurrence of urban flooding reflects not only the insufficiency of conventional infrastructure but also the lack of an integrated and preventive approach to urban water management.
Within this framework, green infrastructure emerges as a key strategy for reconfiguring urban drainage systems by incorporating natural processes into the urban environment and enhancing the capacity for infiltration, retention, and conveyance of stormwater runoff. The cases analyzed demonstrate that its adoption, when combined with consistent public policies and territorial planning instruments, contributes significantly to reducing hydrological risks and improving urban environmental quality.
However, the effectiveness of these solutions depends on the integration of structural and non-structural measures, as well as on coordination among different sectors of public management, particularly those related to land use and occupation, sanitation services, and solid waste management. Furthermore, there is a pressing need to strengthen the institutional capacity of municipalities, ensuring administrative continuity, effective enforcement, and the incorporation of environmental criteria into decision-making processes.
Finally, this study emphasizes that the development and implementation of Urban Drainage Master Plans guided by green infrastructure principles constitute an essential pathway toward promoting more resilient, sustainable, and socially just cities. Such instruments should be designed through an integrated approach that considers the watershed scale and prioritizes solutions capable of reconciling urban development with environmental preservation.
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Fonte: elaborated by the authors, in 2024.