DOMESTICATING VS. FOREIGNIZING POSITIONS IN THE TRANSLATION OF PROPER NAMES FROM ENGLISH INTO POLISH AND GERMAN

Abstract

In this paper, the author examines corresponding equivalents in Polish and German of English proper names from the novel “Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone” to find out how the same fictional elements have been translated into two different target languages. Furthermore, he attempts to prove what rules can be established for the use of translation strategies when translating proper names into Polish and German. Thus, the aim of this paper is to study domesticating and foreignizing translation strategies implemented by the translators of the Polish and German editions.

Keywords
proper names; translation strategies; domestication; foreignization; Harry Potter

Introduction

For over 20 years, the series about Harry Potter has entertained both young and old all around the world. Clearly, its fame is largely attributable to the talent of the author, Joanne K. Rowling. However, it is necessary to state that the impressive international popularity of the books has also been dependent on the masterful work of many translators who recreated the fictional world of the wizards in over 80 languages¹, making Rowling one of the most translated writers in history². Numerous Harry Potter fans in Poland owe the translation to Andrzej Polkowski, while German readers owe it to Klaus Fritz. Given the differences between Polish and German, it was important for the author to investigate how the same elements of fictional reality were translated into two different languages. Thus, this paper aims to study the steps taken by the translators of the to overcome the lack of equivalence when translating proper names. It, therefore, analyses English proper names and their Polish and German equivalents. Specifically, the article aims to compare the translation techniques used by the translators and the corresponding outcomes of such implementation. Moreover, it should be stressed that this paper is a unilateral, synchronous investigation in the confrontational-creative context of translation.

Theoretical background

Methods of research

The translation of proper names has constituted a linguistic problem which has been discussed by many linguists in different language constellations. Over the last 60 years, researchers such as Sonja and Gert Jäger (1969), Kalverkämper (1978), Vermes (1996), Venuti (2001), Debus (1997), Baker (2003), Krüger (2004), Hejwowski (2004), Hengst (2005) and Piotrowska (2010) et al. have extensively written about proper names in literary translation. This explains the wide variety of terminologies developed and used in the field of literary translation. Moreover, it should be stressed that the translation of proper names is not only a translational problem. It refers to a large extent to the questions of onomastics and literature studies (Krüger, 2004).

When translating proper names, it is first necessary to determine what methods of research will be implemented. This paper aims at focusing on the classic dichotomy introduced by Schleiermacher (1963), who distinguished between domesticating and foreignizing positions. This classical approach, also implemented by contemporary linguists (e.g., Krüger 2004; Venuti 2001), requires that two alternatives (to the reader or to the author) are taken into account. In other words, the translator needs to determine whether he or she will “try to do something” with a proper name or “leaves it as it is” (Krüger, 2004). Nevertheless, during translation, the text must always be viewed as a whole.

Krüger (2004) rightly remarks that loyalty to the author, means keeping the foreign language name form in the TL (including transcription/transliteration). However, it is usually associated with loss of function of the name, for example, talking names³, that is, semantically transparent names, become “silent”. Loyalty to the reader, as a second option, is expressed, for example, in the translation of names or in creative name transfer, for example, with speaking names, the semantics can be essential for the named person or location, among others.

In the following analysis, loyalty to the author (=foreignization) and loyalty to the reader (=domestication) will constitute the point of departure of each investigation. To do so, it is necessary to define which translation techniques can be ascribed to each position. Therefore, the analysis will be founded on the typology proposed by Hrehovčík in the volume, Introduction to Translation (2006), which comprises eleven types of translation strategies. Only two of these eleven translation techniques, borrowing and transliteration, are typical of loyalty to the author. Since both TLs, German and Polish, as well as English as a SL use Latin script, transliteration will not be identified in this research. The other nine translation strategies, adaptation, calque, compensation, explicitation, modulation, paraphrase, simplification, translator’s note and transposition, can therefore be classified as techniques typical of loyalty to the reader.

Translation techniques

Translation techniques can be defined as the particular steps taken by the translator to overcome the lack of equivalence (Hrehovčík, 2006). Also known as strategies of translation, they generally “[…] involve the basic tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated and developing a method to translate it” (Venuti, 2001, p. 240). Some other terms used to describe translation include: translation procedures, techniques of translating, methods of translating, translation strategies, and so on. According to Burkhanov (2003, p. 170), these terms refer to the “[…] selection of appropriate linguistic means of the target language that are intended to account for various elements of the spoken or written discourse originally conducted in the source language within the framework of mediated bilingual communication”. Apparently, the variant terms can be considered as synonyms, since they refer to the same linguistic activities carried out by the translator (Buć, 2018).

Foreignization / loyalty to the author

Borrowing

Borrowing may be a satisfactory translation strategy if there are no direct equivalents in the TL to carry the full meaning potential of the SL lexeme (Hrehovčík, 2006), e.g., ‘baguette’ in English which is of French origin.

Transliteration

Transliteration is applied when spelling words (e.g., place names) from languages that use different alphabet systems, for example, ‘Norbert’ (Eng.) – ‘Норберт’ [Norbert] (Rus.) (Hrehovčík, 2006).

Domestication / loyalty to the reader

Adaptation

According to Hrehovčík (2006), adaptation can be implemented if the context presented in the ST cannot be rendered in the TC. The translation strategy aims to conduct some kind of re-creation when the two cultures in question are mismatched.

Calque

Calque, according to Hrehovčík (2006), is based on literal translation. This way, particular elements of the SL lexeme are literally translated word for word, e.g. ‘skyscraper’ (Eng.) – ‘Wolkenkratzer’ (Ger.) (Burkhanov, 2003).

Compensation

Compensation aims to achieve “[…] a similar effect in the target text through different means of expression than those in the source text. Compensation is used with puns, alliteration, rhyme, slang, metaphor, or pregnant words” (Hrehovčík, 2006, p. 48).

Explicitation

During explicitation, “[…] the translator expands the target text by inserting additional words” (Hrehovčík, 2006, p. 48).

Modulation

Modulation entails a change in cognitive categories, understood as a shift in a viewpoint (Hrehovčík, 2006).

Paraphrase

By the use of a paraphrase, the translator replaces a word in the ST with a group of words or an expression in the TT.

Simplification

Hrehovčík (2006, p. 49) states that “[…] simplification takes place if there is lack of equivalence at word level”. For example, lexical simplification involves the use of a superordinate, that is, a word which carries a more general meaning.

Translator’s note

A translator’s note provides additional information on “[…] the limits of the translation, cultural background or any other explanation” (Hrehovčík, 2006, p. 49).

Transposition

According to Hrehovčík (2006, p. 50), “[…] transposition means rendering a second language element by syntactio-syntagmatic structures which have the same meaning but do not correspond formally (e.g., because of changes in the class of words used)”.

Translation of proper names

In theory, names of single persons or objects are ‘outside’ languages, belong, if at all, to the encyclopaedia not the dictionary, have… no meaning or connotations, [and] are therefore, both untranslatable and not to be translated

(Newmark, 1982, p. 70).

Piotrowska (2010) opposes the opinion in the above quote and posits that there is no legitimate justification nor are there convincing arguments to claim that the lack of connotative meaning in names should be perceived as a fact. Hejwowski (2004, p. 147) shares a similar opinion as he claims that proper names have always been controversial among logicians and linguists in the formal linguistics school of thought (e.g., Vendler, 1975) who represent very far-reaching opinions about naming. Such opinions include: “proper names have no meaning”, “proper names are not governed by morphological rules”, “proper names have no synonyms” and “proper names have no connotations”. Kalverkämper (1978) also holds this view, distinguishing certain operations performed on proper names, although, he refrains from referring to these procedures as translation.

Kromp (2008), on the other hand, believes that specific social, stylistic, cultural, and emotional aspects of proper names can only be partially rendered in a TL. In fact, Hejwowski (2004) asserts that the opinions about proper names in logic and formal linguistics are generalizations which are only partly true – if at all. He stresses that just as any other group of words, proper names are governed by all grammatical rules (Hejwowski, 2004). Piotrowska (2010), likewise, opines that translation should entail the denotative and connotative nature of proper names. Moreover, Piotrowska (ibid.) suggests that the connotative value of proper names depends on their application in the linguistic and extra-linguistic context as some of them can be used suggestively, allusively, ironically, as puns, as characteristic label names or nicknames. That is why the translator first identifies and comprehends the implicit idea in a given lexeme. Very often, hidden significations of proper names serve certain purposes. Hence, in the second stage of the translation process, the translator renders the connotations that are evoked by the lexeme in the ST.

Method of Analysis

The following analysis is based on an adaptation of Piotrowska’s (2010) typology of proper names. Piotrowska’s typology is modified to suit the uniqueness of the ST (prose fiction). Hence, analysis is dived into four major groups of proper names. Three of these groups are those proposed by Piotrowska (2010), namely, geographical names (=toponyms), institutional names and proper names of people (=anthroponyms). Importantly, the third group, proper names of people, includes not only human characters but also personified characters (non-human), such as animals and other magical creatures in the ST. The fourth category – other proper names – is based on the fact that the novel also features names which represent fictional magical reality, such as proper names of everyday objects.

Additionally, if necessary, some presented fragments of the ST and their translated versions (TT1 and TT2, respectively: Polish and German) are accompanied by a comment which describes the semantics of the SL lexemes and the translation techniques implemented by the translators of the German and Polish TTs. Analysis is based on examples of proper names in the first volume of the Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (2014 [First published in 1997]) and their translations into Polish and German.

Contrastive analysis

Geographical names

Table 1
TT1: borrowing (foreignization); TT2: calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
Privet Drive p. 3	Privet Drive p. 7	Ligusterweg p. 7

The example in the ST passage in Table 1 is the name of a street where the Dursleys (Harry Potter’s foster family) live – ‘Privet Drive’. In the presented TTs, two different translation strategies are observed; the translator of the TT1 applies borrowing, a foreignizing method, whereas the translator of the TT2 uses a calque, a domesticating method. This way, the Polish version preserves the climate of the scenery the action takes place in.

Table 2
TT1: borrowing (foreignization); TT2: borrowing (foreignization)

ST	TT1	TT2
Kent, Yorkshire and Dundee p. 7	Kent, Yorkshire i Dundee p. 11	Kent, Yorkshire und Dundee p. 11

The ST excerpt in Table 2 provides examples of proper names of counties (Kent, Yorkshire) and the proper name of a city (Dundee). In both translations, Polish and German, the SL lexemes are transferred literally, following the general rule of translating geographical names described by Piotrowska (2010). In conclusion, both translations are examples of loyalty to the author as they present long established lexemes. Nevertheless, the decision to use this particular technique makes the reader aware that the action takes place in a different country.

Table 3
TT1: adaptation (domestication); TT2: adaptation (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
Diagon Alley p. 66	Ulica Pokątna p. 68	Winkelgasse p. 70

The example provided in Table 3 is the title of a chapter, which is also the name of a street. The lexeme is not semantically neutral, it refers to a mathematical shape – diagonal. Both the German and Polish TL lexemes attempt to recreate the semantic notion of a narrow diagonal alley. The TL1 lexeme appears to refer to the word-for-word translation of the term, ‘diagonal’ (Pol. przekątna). But in fact, the translator resorts to a “semantically stronger” lexeme, ‘pokątna’ (Eng. illicit) including the morpheme ‘-kąt-’ (Eng. corner), which, apart from the mathematical association in the TL, additionally implies that some illegal actions take place in the alley. Also, the TL2 lexeme comprises the morpheme, ‘Winkel-’ (Eng. corner), which implies the mathematical shape as well as a hidden place. Both the German and Polish TL lexemes illustrate adaptation, where only the essential message from the ST is conveyed into a new translation unit in the TT.

Table 4
TT1: calque (domestication); TT2: calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
the Forbidden Forest p. 260	Zakazany Las p. 251	der Verbotene Wald p. 263

As indicated in Table 4, the TL lexemes for the proper name, ‘the Forbidden Forest’, were translated literally. This is characteristic of a calque. However, Polish as a Slavonic language has no articles, hence, this grammatical aspect could not be conveyed into the TL1.

Institutional names

Table 5
TT1: calque (domestication); TT2: calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
Ministry of Magic p. 69	Ministerstwo Magii p. 71	Zaubereiministerium / Ministerium für Zauberei p. 73

The texts presented in Table 5 include two compound lexical items; the SL neologism, ‘Ministry of Magic’, was coined to simulate the naming pattern of real ministries. The SL lexeme was transferred literally into the TLs. However, the TL2 lexeme occurs in two forms, as dictated by the morphological and stylistic norms of German language. Therefore, both TL lexemes have been translated by means of a calque, indicating loyalty to the reader.

Table 6
TT1: adaptation (domestication); TT2: adaptation (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
Paddington station p. 92	stacja Paddington p. 94	Bahnhof Paddington p. 96

TT1 and TT2, presented in Table 6, are examples of adaptation. However, in this context, the lexemes are examples of transcription of the original, as a part of the ST is reproduced word-for-word. This way, a part of the lexeme, ‘Paddington station’, is transferred literally to enhance the TL recipients’ understanding of the compound noun. Also, the word, ‘station’, is replaced by its Polish and German equivalents. Clearly, both TTs prove loyalty to the reader (domestication).

Table 7
TT1: calque (domestication); TT2: calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
the Daily Prophet p. 69	Prorok Codzienny p. 71	der Tagesprophet p. 73

The TL lexemes presented in Table 7 are an example of a calque. However, in TT1, elements of the SL lexeme are reversed due to the stylistic norms of the Polish language. Considering the morphological aspects of compound nouns in German, the TL2 lexeme takes the form of a single word linked with an s, called the linking “s” in English. Thus, the translation strategies presented in Table 7 are domesticating.

Table 8
TT1: calque (domestication); TT2: adaptation (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
the Leaky Cauldron p. 73	Dziurawy Kocioł p. 75	zum Tropfenden Kessel p. 77

TT1, in Table 8, offers another example of a domesticating translation strategy, calque, where there is a word-for-word translation at the lexical level. In TT2, there is an additional lexeme, a preposition, ‘zum’ (Eng. in). This stylistic element is dictated by the tradition of naming restaurants and bars in Germany. Hence, the presented translation unit is an example of an adaptation, as some elements of the proper name are presented in a more familiar context. Nevertheless, it should be remarked that at other positions in the TT2, the mentioned preposition is omitted, which makes the TL2 lexeme a typical calque.

Table 9
TT1: explicitation (domestication); TT2: calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
the Restricted Section p. 221	Dział Ksiąg Zakazanych p. 214	die Verbotene Abteilung p. 224

There are two different domesticating translation strategies in the presented TTs (Table 9). TT2 includes one more example of a calque; the translator of the TT1, in contrast, expands the TT1, by introducing additional information implicitly present in the ST. Therefore, the Polish reader has the text, ‘Dział Ksiąg Zakazanych’, which can be translated as Forbidden Books Department.

Table 10
TT1: borrowing (foreignization); TT2: borrowing (foreignization)

ST	TT1	TT2
Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw and Slytherin p. 122	Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw i Slytherin p. 123	Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw und Slytherin p. 126

The TT excerpts in Table 10 are examples of borrowing. The translators of both texts (TT1 and TT2) adopt the same translation strategy. Although the names of the Hogwarts houses evoke certain associations, it is plausible that the translators maintained them in the translation to preserve their magical association.

Table 11
TT1: borrowing (foreignization); TT2: borrowing (foreignization)

ST	TT1	TT2
Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardy p. 55	Hogwart Szkoła Magii i Czarodziejstwa p. 57	Hogwarts-Schule für Hexerei und Zauberei p. 59

In the texts presented in Table 11, there are two translation units that typify the foreignizing translation strategy, borrowing. However, the TL1 lexeme is shortened. The lacking s at the end of the word makes the lexeme more like another similar sounding university name in Polish, i.e., ‘Harvard’.

Proper names of people

Table 12
TT1: adaptation (domestication); TT2: adaptation (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
You-Know-Who p. 117	Sam-Wiesz-Kto p. 118	Du-weißt-schon-wer p. 122

In Table 12, both TL equivalents of the SL lexeme, You-Know-Who are an example of adaptation, as in this case, not the typical word-for-word translation. In TL1, the pronoun, ‘you’, is substituted with the pronoun, ‘Sam’ (Eng. alone) to capture the semantic and grammatical reference in the ST. The use of you alone instead of the simple ‘you’ also serves stylistic emphatic purposes. The same stylistic effect informs the choice of the modal particle, ‘schon’, inserted in the TL2 lexeme.

Table 13
TT1: calque (domestication); TT2: borrowing (foreignization)

ST	TT1	TT2
Fluffy p. 285	Puszek p. 275	Fluffy p. 288

The texts in Table 13 illustrate two contrasting translation strategies. The TL1 lexeme is the result of a calque, a domesticating translation technique, whereas, the TL2 lexeme illustrates borrowing, a foreignization technique. Although, the borrowing technique in TT2 somewhat entails translation loss, its advantage is that it ensures the German reader is aware that the setting of the text is foreign. Nevertheless, the name of the three-headed dog, ‘Fluffy’, carries a certain meaning and it is meant to evoke clear associations among the readers of the ST. According to the Cambridge Online Dictionary, the adjective, fluffy, means: “[…] soft and like wool or like fur: fluffy toys”. Thus, the name has an ironic character, as the mentioned dog is a terrifying three-headed monster keeping watch on the priceless Philosopher’s Stone. A synonymous expression is used in TT1 to reconstruct the same stylistic and semantic effects. Moreover, the TL1 lexeme – ‘Puszek’ – is an appropriate one, since it is a common name for pets in Polish.

Table 14
TT1: calque (domestication); TT2: borrowing (foreignization)

ST	TT1	TT2
Fang p. 149	Kieł p. 149	Fang p. 153

Table 14 also illustrates the same translation techniques as Table 13. TT1 in Table 14 includes a calque, whereas, TT2 shows an example of a borrowing. Remarkably, the TL1 lexeme is a word-for-word translation and the name, ‘Kieł’, is familiar to readers of TT1, as it was already used in the Polish translation of Jack London’s novel, White Fang (Polish title: Biały Kieł).

Table 15
TT1: calque (domestication); TT2: calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
Nearly Headless Nick p. 132	Prawie Bezgłowy Nick p. 132	Der Fast Kopflose Nick p. 136

In Table 15, there is a classic example of a calque – both in TT1 and TT2. The elements of the compound noun in the SL have been transferred literally into TL1 and TL2.

Table 16
TT1: adaptation (domestication); TT2: borrowing (foreignization)

ST	TT1	TT2
Peeves p. 170	Irytek p. 168	Peeves p. 174

In Table 16, there are two different translation strategies representing opposing positions. TT2 includes borrowing, typical of loyalty to the author. Whereas, TT1 is an example of an adaptation, which is characteristic of loyalty to the reader. It is remarkable that the translator of TT1 coins a new noun which semantically refers to the SL lexeme, as the verb, ‘irytować’, means as much as ‘to peeve’.

Table 17
TT1: borrowing (foreignization); TT2: borrowing (foreignization)

ST	TT1	TT2
Professor Sprout, Professor Flitwick, Professor McGonagall, Professor Quirrell, Professor Dumbledore, Professor Snape p. 249	Profesor Sprout, Profesor Flitwick, Profesor McGonagall, Profesor Quirrell, Profesor Dumbledore, Profesor Snape p. 241	Professor Sprout, Professor Flitwick, Professor McGonagall, Professor Quirrell, Professor Dumbledore, Professor Snape p. 252

The excerpts presented in Table 17 include 6 names of protagonists translated by means of the same translation technique, borrowing. In the respective TT1 and TT2, translators of the German and Polish versions reproduce the names without any changes in their phonological forms. Undoubtedly, the decision to apply borrowing ensures the readers of the TT1 and TT2 are aware that the setting of the story is an English-speaking country. This contributes to an enhanced understanding of the story line as well as stresses the specific mood of the plot. Besides, most of the names of the professors of Hogwarts carry certain hidden meanings or allude to other similar sounding words which evoke associations among the readers of the ST (e.g., ‘Dumbledore’ = bumblebee, ‘Snape’ ~ snake, ‘Sprout’ – part of a herb). Additionally, the author of the ST intentionally named the professors this way in order to ascribe them certain personality traits that can be associated with the hidden meanings of the lexemes. Unfortunately, these aspects of the proper names will remain inaccessible to recipients of the TT1 and TT2.

Other proper names

The last category of names discussed in this paper comprises other proper names. Piotrowska’s (2010) typology of proper names omits objects of everyday use which cannot be ascribed to any of the categories presented above. That is why this section can be regarded as a supplement of the Piotrowska’s typology since it presents techniques used by the translators of the TT1 and TT2 in translating proper names which are elements of the everyday reality present in the novel.

Table 18
TT1: calque (domestication); TT2: calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
Platform Nine and Three-Quarters p. 100	Peron dziewięć i trzy czwarte p. 102	Gleis neundreiviertel p. 104

Table 18 presents examples (TT1 as well as TT2) of a domesticating translation technique, calque, where elements of language-specific collocations are translated word-for-word.

Table 19
TT1: borrowing (foreignization); TT2: borrowing (foreignization)

ST	TT1	TT2
Quidditch p. 195	Quidditch p. 190	Quidditch p. 198

The excerpts presented in Table 19 illustrate a borrowing as the TT lexemes in both languages, Polish and German, have exactly the same form as the ST lexeme.

Table 20
TT1: adaptation (domestication); TT2: calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
the Golden Snitch p. 181	złoty znicz p. 178	der Goldene Schnatz p. 185

Table 20 on the other hand indicates domesticating translation strategies, i.e., adaptation and calque. The elements of the TL2 lexeme are translated word-for-word. In the case of TT1, the first element is translated literally while the translation of the second element is based on phonological similarity but with a different meaning than in ST.

Table 21
TT1: borrowing (foreignization) / calque (domestication); TT2: borrowing (foreignization) / calque (domestication)

ST	TT1	TT2
Nimbus Two Thousand p. 77	Nimbus Dwa Tysiące p. 79	Nimbus Zweitausend p. 81

In Table 21, there is a mix of two translation strategies. The SL lexeme, ‘Nimbus’, is translated by means of a borrowing, whereas the second part of the proper name has been translated literally word-for-word by means of a calque. This way, the foreign language element preserves the tone of the text (foreignization) and the calque (domestication) makes the TL lexemes more familiar to the recipients of the TTs.

Conclusions

The above analyses make it evident the translators had the need to use a variety of translation techniques in order to translate proper names. Remarkable is the fact that the techniques used in each case were often similar or the same in both target languages. When translating geographical names, the translators more often applied domesticating translation techniques, such as adaptation and calque, for making the names more comprehensible to the TT audience. In rendering the names of towns and counties, the translators followed the general rule of translating geographical names and kept the ST lexemes unchanged, which is an example of foreignization. Among the 10 proper names of institutions analysed, 5 are examples of domestication and the other 5 of foreignization. Interestingly, both translators used exactly the same techniques in each case. As far as proper names of people are concerned, the following division can be observed here. When translating proper names of human characters, both translators usually used calque, which is an example of foreignization. If, on the other hand, non-human characters are considered, then it can be observed that both translators have mostly used domesticating techniques, i.e. borrowing or adaptation. It is interesting to note that in the case of both dog names, i.e. ‘Fluffy’ and ‘Fang’, both translators did the opposite. In the Polish translation there can be observed domestication, while in the German translation foreignization. Of the ST lexemes, representing other proper names analysed, a trend relating to a clear division between domesticating and foreignizing techniques cannot be clearly identified. Nevertheless, once again, it can be observed that both translators applied the same translation techniques in each of the examples analysed.

In conclusion, the above examples prove that strict rules cannot be established in terms of the usage of translation strategies when translating proper names into Polish and German. Nevertheless, the fact that the same translation strategies are used in so many cases seems very interesting, as Polish and German, i.e. Slavic and Germanic languages, represent different language families. Therefore, it was not the language itself but another aspect that had to be decisive in the selection of the most appropriate translation strategy. Furthermore, it can be noted that the use of foreignizing techniques was equally frequent in both languages, which would appear to indicate that recipients in both Poland and in German-speaking countries have no problem understanding English names. Thus, one may venture to say that the significant issue in choosing the appropriate translation technique was the fact that we live in a world of progressive cultural globalisation, and English as the lingua franca of modern times is not so “foreign”, and it is this cultural aspect that may have influenced the similar translation decisions of both translators in both languages.

List of abbreviations
• TL  target language
• SL  source language
• TC  target culture
• SC  source culture
• TT  target text
• ST  source text

• 1
  Wizarding World.
• 2
  Tomedes.
• 3
  The term alludes back to an ancient tradition that can be found even in ancient Greek literature (Kohlheim 2018); however, it is derived from German, redende Namen.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  19 June 2023
• Date of issue
  2022

History

• Received
  10 Feb 2022
• Accepted
  18 Aug 2022
• Published
  Nov 2022