Vocational Guidance: factors in choosing a careerABSTRACT
The purpose of this systematic review is to analyze the determining factors in the vocational guidance of secondary school students, based on research published between 2021 and 2025. Through the PRISMA declaration, the factors were categorized into four dimensions. 46 scientific articles were selected for in-depth review. The findings indicate a strong presence of personal and psychological factors, such as self-efficacy, decision-making, vocational identity, and emotional well-being. Family and social factors stand out in the influence of reference figures in the accompaniment of the vocational process. Educational and academic factors show progress in the implementation of training strategies and school programs. Finally, economic and labor factors are beginning to acquire notoriety as structural conditioning factors for vocational decisions.
Keywords
Vocational Orientation; Determinants; Secondary Education; Vocational Identity; Decision Making
RESUMEN
La presente revisión sistemática tiene como propósito analizar los factores determinantes en la orientación vocacional de estudiantes del nivel secundario, a partir de investigaciones publicadas entre los años 2021 y 2025. Mediante la declaración PRISMA se categorizaron los factores en cuatro dimensiones. Se seleccionaron 46 artículos científicos para su revisión a profundidad. Los hallazgos indican una fuerte presencia de factores personales y psicológicos, como la autoeficacia, la toma de decisiones, la identidad vocacional y el bienestar emocional. Los factores familiares y sociales destacan en la influencia de figuras de referencia en el acompañamiento del proceso vocacional. Los factores educativos y académicos muestran avances en la implementación de estrategias formativas y programas escolares. Por último, los factores económicos y laborales, comienzan a adquirir notoriedad como condicionantes estructurales de las decisiones vocacionales.
Palabras-clave
Orientación Vocacional; Factores Determinantes; Educación Secundaria; Identidad Vocacional; Toma de Decisiones
Introduction
Contextualization of vocational guidance in secondary education
Today, career guidance is a key element within the education system, especially in secondary education, where students face their first important decisions about their academic and professional future. Vocational guidance (OV) is the process by which young people learn about the alternatives of vocational training contexts and allows them to transition from their educational environments to embark on their own career paths (Ayoobzadeh et al., 2024). Choosing a professional career or entering higher education is an important step in young people's lives (Malitzke et al., 2025), however, most of them leave secondary school with little knowledge of careers appropriate to their skills and interests (Sikhwari et al., 2025).
As Flores-Buils and Mateu-Pérez (2025) point out, students' vocational indecision or difficulty in directing their choice about their professional future could affect their academic performance in their final years of secondary school and have consequences on their ability to make decisions. A bad decision to pursue a professional career due to an inadequate OV often leads to a significant dropout rate in universities and higher education centers (Moreno-Novoa et al., 2024).
The OV has various aspects of analysis according to the professions or professional fields, so in terms of the perspectives on the selection of medical specialties in Zambia, its mentoring and information resources are still inadequate (Musa et al., 2025). In the pharmaceutical profession in Indonesia, the need for better career guidance and improvements in curricula that generate expectations in the profession is emphasized (Kusuma et al., 2025). In the field of agricultural professions in Pennsylvania, "urban farmers" constitute a study interest and a motivating factor in career guidance (Unay-Gailhard et al., 2025).
Good vocational guidance should ensure the success of secondary school students' transitions towards the construction of their professional careers, empowering them to manage their decisions effectively (Santana-Vega et al., 2023).
Determining factors in vocational guidance
The determining factors are those that structurally influence the OV and that cannot be easily modified in the short term, they can be grouped into four theoretical dimensions according to their foundation, thus we have, the personal and psychological factors, based on Holland's Model of Vocational Types in 1997, the family and social factors, founded by the Social Cognitive Theory of Career (SCCT) of Lent, Brown and Hackett in 1994, the educational and academic factors, founded by the Theory of Vocational Development of Donald Super in 1953 and finally, the economic and labor factors, founded by the Human Capital Theory of Becker in 1964.
As for personal and psychological factors, personal interest, work-life balance, and prospects for professional growth are considered (Musa et al., 2025). Likewise, there is self-efficacy in professional decision-making that influences the ability of secondary school students to make informed decisions, which is closely linked to their professional interests, commitment to learning, and academic performance (Liu et al., 2024). On the other hand, these factors also include motivation and personal development, projection towards a job with an interesting future and the potential to build a successful career (Temnova; Maslennikova, 2024).
Among family and social factors, family influence overrides personal interest, likewise, financial considerations and social expectations are also revealed as factors when choosing a professional career (Ho et al., 2024). The family nucleus stands out as a central influence on the decisions made by students, being considered in some cases as a professional reference, in the guidance for the professional future of children (Ceinos-Sanz et al., 2024).
As for educational and academic factors, the ability and knowledge of teachers to communicate information and manage guidance in the planning and selection of students' future professional careers are relevant for a good OV (Zilai, 2024). Likewise, factors such as research opportunities, prestige, and competitiveness that motivate students for some professions should not be neglected (Khormi et al., 2024).
Finally, as economic and labor factors, for the field of medical professions, there is evidence on gender differences, where men analyze factors such as aptitude for the specialty, lifestyle and risks of malpractice lawsuits, while women focused on obtaining the work environment (Al Ajmi et al., 2025). In the nursing career, professional aspirations include high professional development and expectations of leadership with low effort, which underscores the need for educational guidance to understand this clinical practice (Zhang et al., 2025).
In an ever-changing environment, career motivation is influenced by factors such as career progression and high salaries that drive students, however geographic inequality in career advancement opportunities should be highlighted (Niyazbayeva, 2025). As Misiak et al. (2025) point out, the current rise in the influence exerted by social networks has determined that many students have aspirations to turn it into their professional career, such as youtuber for example.
Current challenges in vocational decision-making
The challenges in vocational decision-making have increased in recent years, as Sánchez-Martín et al. (2023) state that there are many elements that can influence the professional decisions of students during adolescence, together with the wide range of training offered, which is why it is necessary to know their vocational interests, motivations, preferences, and personal identities so that schools can properly plan their professional and life projects.
As indicated by Le et al. (2025), OV programs in secondary education are very important to guide students on the possible career opportunities they may choose, especially through experiential learning and its related activities. Vitoratos (2025) argues that these career-oriented programs should be designed to help high school students gain self-awareness, understand job requirements, and develop the skills needed to reason and make career decisions for their future. But, it is not necessarily the most effective, as Ramli et al. (2024) state, vocational programs in Malaysia have low student enrollments, so these programs should consider various antecedents (socio-cultural, socio-psychological and professional), which places the family, community norms and personal attitudes as a relevant role.
Among these challenges, study content must also be improved for better professional guidance for students (Kusuma et al., 2025), where academic skills, interests, extracurricular activities, internships, courses, and activities related to students' skills are developed (Faruque et al., 2025), as well as understanding their professional intentions to develop effective strategies for professional vocational guidance and intervention where personal interest, family influence, and social appreciation, as well as financial stability, are taken into account (Ha et al., 2024).
Information and communication technologies (ICT) are also used today for the field of vocational decisions, artificial intelligence (AI) is allowing students to have technological tools where they are provided with options for professional careers, becoming a potential support for the career guidance process (Monreal; Palaoag, 2024), however, AI can still represent a potential risk in terms of bias in the datasets it uses, which is why in some sectors of the world, such as the European Union, through laws, it has classified AI in education as "high risk", emphasizing its use and importance under a cautious and responsible approach (Dragoni; Margottini, 2024).
Given that OV is a process influenced by various factors, it is essential to carry out a systematic review that synthesizes more recent findings in this area, identifying whether this classification of factors is still decisive or has decreased in its impact, as well as revealing whether new factors have appeared in current times, which affect the choice of a career in students. In this sense, the present study aimed to systematically analyze the determinants of vocational guidance in secondary school students based on research published between 2020 and 2025. This analysis made it possible to identify trends, gaps in the literature and possible strategies to improve vocational guidance at this educational level.
Materials and Methods
The PRISMA declaration (2024) allowed for the scientific compilation and systematization of the selected documents. Figure 1 shows the PRISMA stages and how each stage was characterized for the literature review of this study.
The searches for Phase 1 were carried out in March 2025, considering the SCOPUS and WoS (Web of Science) databases and with a range of years from 2021 to April 2025. These databases were chosen for their high quality of the literature they contain; furthermore, the scientific documentation from the publishers of journals follows a double-blind review process, ensuring the scientific sources and their reliability.
For the search strings, the terms and thesauri defined and classified in ERIC Thesaurus (2022) Educational Resources Information Center were used, and complemented with terms from UNESCO (2022), selecting the keywords for vocational guidance: "vocational guidance", "career counseling", "career guidance", "career orientation"; and for secondary education: "secondary education", "high school students", "secondary school students", as well as to identify the factors: "Determinant factors", "Key factors", "Influencing factors", "Critical factors", "Main determinants".
For the SCOPUS database, the search string was defined: TITLE-ABS-KEY ( ( "vocational guidance" OR "career counseling" OR "career guidance" OR "career orientation" ) AND ( "secondary education" OR "high school students" OR "secondary school students" ) ) AND PUBYEAR > 2019 AND PUBYEAR < 2026, which resulted in 180 scientific documents.
For the Web of Science database, the search string was defined: TS=(( "vocational guidance" OR "career counseling" OR "career guidance" OR "career orientation" ) AND ( "secondary education" OR "high school students" OR "secondary school students" )) AND (PY==("2020" OR "2021" OR "2022" OR "2023" OR "2024" OR "2025")), which allowed access to 104 scientific documents.
Between the two databases consulted, 284 scientific studies were obtained. For the deleted records sub-phase, using the Zotero reference manager and Microsoft Excel software, 99 duplicate documents were identified and that will not be part of the study, so that 185 studies were selected for this phase.
For phase 2, 11 documents that are not scientific articles and 78 documents that do not comply with open access were excluded, this because it is necessary to have original scientific studies, since they allow an in-depth content analysis and thus guarantee the transparency and possibility of replication of the study, therefore, 89 documents were excluded, leaving only 96 for the next sub-phase.
Only scientific documents in English and Spanish were taken into account, so 17 were discarded. With the review of titles and abstracts, those that did not contribute or were outside the scope of study were discarded, finding studies on female empowerment and family planning, as well as the development and validation of questionnaires, the impact of the curriculum on tourism awareness, sustainable housing in some countries, as well as on the labor integration of students with disabilities, and also on mental health in students who attend classes to prepare for entrance exams to professional careers; were discarded in number of 15, therefore, phase 2 concludes with 64 scientific documents selected.
In phase 3, the scientific documents were reviewed, focusing the analysis on the objective of this study and the contribution of the revised document, where some of the determining factors classified for vocational guidance are identified. Some documents that, despite their title and abstract, seemed to fit for the systematic review, with the detailed review of the content, reasons for excluding them were evident. A first reason was the analysis of 10 scientific documents that were only focused on choices of specific professions (library science, medicine, chemistry) without delving into the determining factors in a general way. A second reason for exclusion was the analysis of STEM careers (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) as areas of knowledge for scientists and engineers, without directly addressing OV in secondary school, reaching 8 scientific documents this reason. After the discarded documents, 46 scientific documents were available for systematic review
Phase 4 allowed the analysis of the 46 scientific documents selected after all the inclusion and exclusion criteria and filters, being considered because they explore the factors that affect the formation of OV capacity in secondary school students, and analyze how these factors are evidenced, finding the role of trust in the effectiveness of vocational guidance, parental interference in vocational decision-making, the socioeconomic context and how it affects, there are also analyses on moods for effective decision-making, as well as the perception of secondary school students about their academic and professional future. Table 1 shows the authors considered for each determining factor identified, the year of their study carried out and in which database it can be consulted.
Results
Personal and psychological factors
Personal and psychological factors in OV have been studied under the framework of Holland's in 1997 Vocational Types Model and explained in detail by Alarie-Mercier and Balbinotti (2024). This model argues that vocational choice is based on personality and individual preferences, suggesting that greater self-awareness and personal exploration facilitate effective decision-making.
During the year 2021, the study of vocational interests as a tool for self-knowledge is evidenced, such as Carrasco et al. (2021) who propose and validate the TIPOV test supported by Holland's model, which was designed for the measurement of professional interests in secondary school students in Chile, which highlights how the identification of individual interests is the base approach for decision-making autonomous to the personal characteristics of the student. Likewise, Chen et al. (2021) analyze how self-efficacy in vocational decision-making influences exploratory behavior in professional careers, where moderators such as gender and type of school institution are also identified, reinforcing the idea that the perception that secondary students have about their ability to decide their future directly influences their level of vocational exploration.
On the other hand, García-Perales et al. (2021) focuses on students with high mathematical ability, highlighting how talent does not always translate into adjusted vocational choices, especially in the case of women, so they would not necessarily opt for disciplines for engineers or scientists, inferring that psychological factors such as the perception of belonging, confidence and gender stereotypes, can limit their choices.
For the year 2022, studies indicate that the psychoeducational approach is consolidated, where Fernández-Nistal et al. (2022) highlight the relationship between Holland's personality types and vocational constructs, finding associations between personal profiles and individual motivations for certain careers, this reaffirms the central role of personality traits as a determinant of vocational decision-making, in aspects such as creativity, social order or social contribution.
According to Jemini-Gashi and Kadriu (2022), self-efficacy continues to be important for decision-making when choosing a career and resilience directly influences the vocational clarity of secondary school students, likewise, self-confidence and emotional adaptation are decisive in facing uncertainty in the career choice. For their part, Levin, Lipshits-Braziler e Gati (2022) identified, through profile analysis, up to five types of vocational indecision (general indecisive, uninformed, unmotivated, unrealistic, and conflicted), where each profile reflects specific personal difficulties, such as lack of motivation, low self-esteem, or anxiety in the face of multiple options, evidencing the need to design more precise interventions from psychological accompaniment.
On the other hand, Mareş et al. (2022) focused on vulnerable areas, where they identified that personal limitations such as lack of self-knowledge generate almost no development of the life project and personal insecurity. On the contrary, Ryzhova and Ryzhova (2022) analyzed the formation of the student's image as a professional, linking it to the development of vocational identity at an early age, highlighting the relevance of self-analysis, emotional self-regulation, and the projection of the future self as essential psychological competencies to build more solid vocational decisions.
The studies reviewed during 2023 provide varied perspectives on the personal and psychological factors that influence the vocational decisions of secondary school students. First, the work of Franco et al. (2023) analyzes the vocational profile of students who wish to study Nursing, where it is emphasized how personal interests, aspirations for social help, and the desire for personal fulfillment influence the choice of this career, motivational patterns were also identified that respond to a strong intrinsic component, linked to well-being and service to others, which reflects a high level of vocation as a personal and psychological determinant.
On the other hand, the study by Keller et al. (2023) evaluates the use of video games in the OV and how they influence students' motivation, self-perception of skills, and self-efficacy, which evidences the role of positive emotions, the sense of competence, and the interest generated by innovative methods, as personal elements in the active involvement of the student in their vocational exploration process. Gamification then appears as a powerful tool to promote vocational reflection from the point of view of the student and his or her self.
Finally, Percy & Tanner (2023) through the application of a pilot called "Employment Centres" in England, assesses how articulated and personalised work from schools strengthens the self-perception of secondary school students, increasing their vocational clarity and confidence in decision-making.
During the year 2024, a constant highlighted in several studies has been the central role of self-efficacy in vocational decision-making. Thus, Liu et al. (2024) developed a classification of categories of self-efficacy in career decision-making and its relationship with academic commitment, showing that students with greater self-efficacy were better committed to their educational and vocational process. These findings are complemented by Jemini-Gashi and Hoxha (2024), who directly link self-efficacy with psychological stress, showing how social support (family, school, and peers) positively influence stress reduction, strengthening student confidence in their vocational decisions.
For their part, Fernández-Nistal et al. (2024) addressed the congruence between interests and occupational aspirations, linking them with personality traits and levels of self-efficacy, highlighting the influence of personality type (as pointed out by Holland) on the clarity of vocational selection. In another approach, Nguyen et al. (2024) directly addressed anxiety in the face of vocational decision-making, warning about its negative impact and proposing the need for psychoeducational intervention to mitigate this effect.
In a more general vein, Pham et al. (2024) carried out a bibliometric mapping on research in school OV, highlighting the growing interest in topics such as emotional development, self-exploration, and decision-making skills as emerging axes. Finally, the work of Hernández-Pérez et al. (2024) introduced a critical variable related to personal factors: the gender gap in STEM vocations, identifying that many adolescents lack role models or motivation due to entrenched stereotypes, which also influences perceived self-sufficiency.
Family and social factors
From the perspective of Lent, Brown, and Hackett's in 1994 Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), family and social factors play a crucial role in students' vocational decision-making. Parental expectations, peer and teacher influence, and exposure to role models in the professional arena can facilitate or limit adolescents' career choices.
The studies reviewed during 2021 show the role of the family and social environment in the vocational decision-making process of secondary school students. In the research of Akhsania et al. (2021), emphasis is placed on how the perception of parental support and communication about life goals and personal values significantly influences the vocational exploration of adolescents, aligning with the SCCT, where the family environment acts as a model and feedback on possible trajectories to follow in university life. Also, Olmos-Gómez et al. (2021) from a quantitative approach, found evidence that the family when involved, not only affects vocational guidance, but also the academic self-esteem of the student, which influences their decision-making when projecting their professional future.
On the other hand, Pulido et al. (2021) provide a differentiated view with a gender approach, showing that family expectations are different for men and women, influencing the motivations and criteria used by secondary school students to select a university career. Women link their professional vocation with personal factors, while men are more oriented towards economic factors. For their part, Salim and Darmayanti (2021) found the influence of peer or friend groups as a determining factor in vocational decision-making, reinforcing the importance of close references.
As for the research reviewed for the year 2022, they agree that the family and social environment continues to be a key element in vocational development. The study by García and Maícas (2022) highlights the importance of sources of information in vocational decision-making, stressing that the family and the immediate environment directly influence the choice of a university career, therefore, students consult their parents first when making vocational guidance decisions. revealing a strong emotional and informational dependence that conditions their choice process.
Likewise, Pancerko et al. (2022) found that during the choice of courses and their performance at the secondary level are related to the messages and expectations coming from the closest social circle, especially parents and friends, which is much more reflected in students in rural areas, where the conditioning by their immediate social environment is even greater than in urban areas. which limits their possibilities of exploration and autonomous decision-making. In addition, Rachmah et al. (2022) contribute from a quantitative approach the significant role of the perception of the school climate, peer attachment and, particularly, the involvement of parents in the development of the student's self-awareness, which is represented as an essential psychological component for vocational self-knowledge, highlighting that family influence is not only direct, but also but also manifests itself through emotional and cognitive development.
In the year 2023, the importance of the immediate environment in career decisions as influential in the OV of secondary level students is highlighted. The study by Ayanwale et al. (2023) emphasizes how parents' attitudes towards work and their educational attainment have a decisive influence on adolescents' professional aspirations, moreover, in rural and economically challenging contexts, emotional support from the family is identified as a decisive factor in the formation of future expectations. Similarly, the study by Jemini Gashi et al. (2023) explores the perception of family support in students in rural areas of Kosovo, showing how parental accompaniment acts as a mediator in the development of vocational self-efficacy.
For their part, Fantinelli et al. (2023) offer a broader perspective on the role of the social environment, addressing the influence of significant peers and references, such as teachers, in the configuration of professional decisions. This study identifies that the emotional and relational component within the family nucleus not only guides vocational decision-making, but also cushions the levels of anxiety and pressure in the face of future decisions, promoting a greater commitment to the students' life project.
In 2024, studies will delve into the role played by family structures and social ties in VO. Ceinos-Sanz et al. (2024) explore how the family and the educational community, considered as the student's immediate social environment, directly influence the construction of their professional aspirations, highlighting that family expectations not only motivate but, in many cases, condition academic choices, especially in contexts of low occupational diversity. On the other hand, Li (2024) addresses the cultural-family component within the Chinese context, showing that the support and expectations of parents and teachers can shape self-efficacy and vocational clarity in students.
In the only study of the year 2025, Angelini et al. (2025) present a different perspective, focusing on the negative effects of parental overinterference on vocational decisions. The study shows that excessive parental control can lead to higher levels of school anxiety, burnout and depressive symptoms in students. Family interference, in this case, not only reduces self-efficacy in decision-making, but also weakens the emotional well-being of the adolescent, limiting their possibilities of projecting an autonomous vocational career.
Educational and academic factors
Based on Donald Super's Theory of Vocational Development in 1953, OV is a continuous process that is influenced by academic training and learning experiences. The studies analyzed for the years 2021 and 2022 show a clear concern for the role of the school and the academic environment in the construction of the OV. Dahmen's (2021) study highlights the need to integrate vocational development models more aligned with students' individual trajectories, which facilitate educational experiences by articulating both academic content and reflections on their professional future, in addition, it emphasizes that a rigid curriculum could limit the development of self-knowledge and vocational exploration.
For their part, Falcón-Linares et al. (2021) delve into the relationship between academic performance and career choice, highlighting how perceptions of self-efficacy in the school environment can motivate or discourage vocational decisions. The study shows that the support of teachers, the clarity of training itineraries and access to extracurricular activities with academic value allow strengthening more informed vocational decision-making. This suggests that school performance, by itself, is not enough; It is necessary to have an educational environment that provides active and contextualized guidance on professional careers.
Finally, the study by Pantoja and Aguayo (2022) offers a differentiation of approach, aimed at the implementation of educational programs aimed at strengthening vocational competencies from a perspective of equity and inclusion. The use of active methodologies in the classroom as an effective means of connecting learning with the professional aspirations of students is also highlighted; in addition, for this to work, it is necessary to have highly trained teachers in OV issues.
Throughout 2023, the studies reinforce the strategic role that the formal educational environment plays in students' OV. Thus, the article by Pujol et al. (2023) highlights the existence of structured vocational guidance programs in some schools, however, many of these programs lack effective integration into the school curriculum, which reflects a void that generates in students a disconnection from their academic experiences with the clear projection of professions in their future. In turn, Santana-Vega et al. (2023) analyze the impact of curriculum design and teacher preparation on vocational guidance issues, showing that this type of teacher training is still limited, which makes it difficult for them to become true vocational counselors.
For its part, the research by Wichgers et al. (2023) explores how academic feedback processes and pedagogical accompaniment during the school year can foster or inhibit students' sense of self-efficacy. A relevant finding is that students with better perception of their academic performance show greater vocational clarity, which connects directly with what is postulated by Super's theory of vocational development.
During the year 2024, the literature analyzed shows a clear concern for strengthening the role of teachers in vocational guidance. The study by Bersan et al. (2024) focuses on the need for training for teachers with the necessary competencies as vocational counselors and who can effectively guide students in their academic and professional decisions. The analysis is based on the fact that many teachers do not have sufficient tools for this type of training, and the urgency of institutional training programs to bridge this gap is raised. In a complementary way, Parola et al. (2024) through the NEFELE project, provide a structured intervention model for teacher training in vocational guidance issues, observing significant improvements in students who received this academic service, with respect to adaptability and vocational exploration; Therefore, it is evident that the mediating role of the teacher as a key agent of vocational development is very important.
For its part, the study by Nguyen et al. (2024) provides a vision of the Vietnamese context, analyzing the organizational weaknesses of vocational guidance in secondary school, pointing out limitations in school resources, teacher competencies and little systematization in guidance programs, so the effective implementation of guidance education remains a challenge.
In a more differentiated way, the work of Soidet et al. (2024) investigates the social representations of work and the professional future of French adolescents, considering the type of secondary school and the expected duration of subsequent studies. The most relevant discovery is that school trajectories conditioned by the academic itinerary profoundly influence the construction of expectations and vocational decisions.
Finally, in 2025, the study by Le et al. (2025) ratifies the trends detected in previous years, by studying the factors that influence the capacity of OV from the perspective of experiential activities. The results confirm that institutional commitment, student motivation and family-social support are relevant, but the greatest weight is given to the competencies of the teachers and the structure of the guidance program.
Economic and labor factors
Becker's in 1964 Human Capital Theory states that vocational choice is influenced by the perception of job opportunities and the expected profitability of professional careers.
In 2024, the study by Honeycutt et al. (2024) focuses on economic inequalities as a structural factor that directly affects adolescents' vocational decisions. The research highlights how the perception of economic constraints narrows the spectrum of possibilities that students consider viable for their professional future, which affects their sense of self-efficacy and aspirations. In addition, it is argued that unequal access to practical learning opportunities and career guidance services reinforces cycles of social disadvantage. From this perspective, economic factors are not only external conditioning factors, but also builders of internal limits in vocational projections.
On the other hand, the article by Stahl et al. (2025), although more focused on the analysis of trust and relationship in vocational counseling processes, presents relevant findings on low-income young men in Australia. It is highlighted that the lack of economic resources limits not only access to adequate guidance, but also the ability to imagine alternative professional paths to those imposed by the immediate context. Thus, the economic dimension is intertwined with psychological aspects, such as low motivation and limited expectations, revealing how perceived working conditions and expected financial stability shape vocational horizons from an early age.
Discussion
From the systematic review for the analysis of the determining factors of vocational guidance, in the scientific studies between 2021 and 2025, it has been evidenced that some factors still remain to the present day and have even evolved from purely psychometric approaches to a more comprehensive analysis of the student's vocational experience.
Regarding personal and psychological factors, the findings obtained reinforce the value of the individual psychological approach in the understanding of vocational guidance. In line with Holland's in 1997 Model of Vocational Types, it is observed how the correspondence between personality traits, vocational interests and perception of self-efficacy has a decisive impact on the construction of the life project of adolescents. In the different years analyzed, the emotional component (e.g., anxiety, hope, motivation, self-esteem) has been repeatedly pointed out as a mediator or modulator of the vocational decision-making process.
A relevant aspect that emerges from the literature is the need to offer specialized psychological support during the years of secondary education, not only to guide, but also to contain and emotionally strengthen students in the face of a process that, for many, generates high levels of uncertainty. Evidence suggests that effective interventions should consider not only the development of vocational exploration skills, but also foster overall psychological well-being, tolerance to frustration, and reflective thinking about the future.
The findings obtained for family and social factors confirm the substantial weight that family and social dynamics have in the vocational construction of students. In line with the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) of Lent, Brown, and Hackett in 1994, it is evident that expectations, role modeling, and the level of support received directly influence the perceived self-efficacy and vocational goals of adolescents. Parental influence not only defines aspirations, but can also limit options if not properly balanced with processes of autonomy.
A key point that emerges in the most recent studies is the need to avoid one-dimensional approaches to the family. Although family support is recognized as fundamental, the adverse effects derived from excessive control or the imposition of vocational trajectories alien to the interests of students are also documented.
In addition, the results highlight the urgency of incorporating an inclusive vision of vocational guidance, recognizing the structural inequalities faced by certain groups, by gender, socioeconomic level or geographical context, and the need to adapt interventions according to these realities.
The findings show that educational and academic factors play a determining and multifaceted role in the vocational guidance process. In line with Donald Super's theory of vocational development, it is reaffirmed that the school experience, academic itineraries, and pedagogical accompaniment are part of the process of building the vocational identity of the adolescent.
One of the main findings revealed by the most recent studies is the gap between the guidance potential that precedes schools and the structural limitations they face, especially in contexts of educational vulnerability. The scarcity of specific information from teachers, the lack of systematic programs, and the unequal distribution of resources generate disparities in the possibilities of vocational development among students. At the same time, the need to transform the role of the teacher from a facilitator of knowledge to an active agent in the integral formation of the student, with competencies that include tutoring, active listening and work with families and the community is raised.
It is important to note that the inclusion of active methodologies such as practical experiences, project-based learning and competency-based guidance has become more relevant. These approaches allow students to explore their interests, abilities and professional options in a concrete way, turning the educational experience into a formative space that transcends academics.
Likewise, these studies reinforce Becker's in 1964 approach to human capital, by showing how the perception of economic return, expected job security and the possibility of social mobility directly influence students' willingness to invest in their education and define their professional future. Lack of trust in a system that offers them equal opportunities can lead to hasty, limited or uninformed decisions, therefore, a OV must actively consider the structural conditions in which adolescents develop.
One of the methodological aspects to highlight in this systematic review is the selection of open access scientific studies, which allowed a detailed analysis of the findings without access barriers, which makes it easier to replicate and thus contribute to the knowledge reaching a greater number of people. However, it also implies that certain relevant studies, available only through restricted access, may not be considered in this review study. However, it has been possible to obtain an important sample of recent open access articles with relevant and pertinent information.
Conclusions
This systematic review has made it possible to identify and analyze the main factors that influence the vocational orientation of secondary level students, based on research published between 2021 and 2025, classifying them into four large groups: personal and psychological, family and social, educational and academic, and economic and labor.
First, there has been a growing interest in personal and psychological factors, especially those related to self-efficacy, decision-making, motivation, vocational identity, and emotional well-being. These elements, connected to Holland's model of vocational types, have been addressed in greater depth and frequency throughout the five years analyzed, showing an advance in the understanding of the internal dynamics of the student during his vocational process.
Regarding family and social factors, the role of parents, teachers and significant figures as references in students' vocational decisions is reaffirmed. However, there is also a need to strengthen the accompaniment and preparation of the members of their closest environment, so that they can guide from a more understanding, informed and stereotype-free perspective. The gaps identified in this area are mainly related to the lack of specific training and poor coordination between school and family environments.
On the other hand, educational and academic factors, linked to school preparation, access to guidance programmes and the quality of teaching, show a favourable evolution in terms of recognition of their importance. However, there is still a marked inequality in the implementation of effective vocational guidance programmes, especially in rural contexts. Despite some progress, there is still a need for a more comprehensive approach that articulates the school curriculum with real training experiences that allow students to clearly visualize their professional future.
Finally, although less addressed in recent literature, economic and labor factors are beginning to gain prominence in the studies carried out. These articles have highlighted how employability expectations, access to the labour market and socio-economic realities have a decisive influence on adolescents' vocational decisions. Still, more research is needed in this area, especially in Latin American contexts, to better understand how these variables shape youth interests and aspirations.
Taken together, these findings allow us to glimpse several practical implications: there is an urgent need to strengthen vocational guidance programs from a comprehensive, contextualized and sustained approach over time; train teachers and counselors; to promote the active participation of families in the vocational choice process; and designing public policies that consider the socioeconomic conditions of students as part of decision-making about their future.
Regarding recommendations for future research, it is suggested to deepen the analysis of economic and labor factors from a critical perspective, as well as to explore the interrelationship between the different types of factors in specific contexts. In addition, it is recommended to carry out longitudinal studies that allow us to observe changes in vocational trajectories over time, and to generate evidence that serves to design more effective strategies of accompaniment and guidance.
Availability of research data
the dataset supporting the results of this study is published within the article itself.
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Editor in charge:
Elizabeth Macedo
Source: Authors' elaboration.