EFFECTS OF WORK-TO-FAMILY AND FAMILY-TO-WORK ENRICHMENT ON STAFF ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS

ABSTRACT

This investigation tests the impact of work-to-family and family-to-work enrichment on job satisfaction and affective commitment. Also, it analyzes the impact of job satisfaction on affective commitment and the impact of job satisfaction and affective commitment on turnover intention. The investigation is based on a Spanish multisectoral sample of employed workers. The results confirmed all the model relationships except the impact of work-to-family enrichment on job satisfaction and affective commitment. Nor did they confirm the association between job satisfaction and turnover intention. Furthermore, managerial implications are derived to curb turnover intention through family-friendly policies that promote affective commitment and job satisfaction by means of work-family enrichment.

Keywords:
work-family enrichment; job satisfaction; affective commitment; turnover intention; family-friendly policies

RESUMEN

Esta investigation testa el efecto del enriquecimiento trabajo-a-familia y familia-a-trabajo sobre la satisfacción laboral y el compromiso afectivo. También analiza el efecto de la satisfacción laboral sobre el compromiso afectivo, y los efectos de la satisfacción laboral y el compromiso afectivo sobre la intención de abandono. La investigación se basa en una muestra multisectorial de trabajadores españoles. Los resultados confirmaron todas las relaciones del modelo salvo el impacto del enriquecimiento trabajo-a-familia sobre satisfacción laboral y el compromiso afectivo. Tampoco confirmaron la asociación de satisfacción con intención de abandono. Igualmente, se derivan implicaciones gerenciales dirigidas a frenar la intención de abandono mediante políticas family-friendly que promuevan el compromiso afectivo y la satisfacción laboral por medio del enriquecimiento trabajo-familia.

Palabras clave:
enriquecimiento trabajo-familia; satisfacción laboral; compromiso afectivo; intención de abandono; políticas family-friendly

RESUMO

Esta investigação testa o efeito do enriquecimento trabalho-a-família e família-ao-trabalho na satisfação profissional e no compromisso afetivo. Analisa igualmente o efeito da satisfação profissional no compromisso afetivo, e os efeitos da satisfação profissional e do compromisso afetivo na intenção de abandono. A investigação baseia-se numa amostra multissetorial de trabalhadores espanhóis. Os resultados confirmaram todas as relações do modelo, exceto o efeito do enriquecimento trabalho-a-família na satisfação profissional e no compromisso afetivo. Também não confirmaram a relação entre satisfação e intenção de abandono. Da mesma forma, derivam-se implicações gerenciais destinadas a coibir a intenção de abandono por meio de políticas family-friendly que promovam o compromisso afetivo e a satisfação profissional por meio do enriquecimento trabalho-família.

Palavras-chaves:
enriquecimento trabalho-família; satisfação profissional; compromisso afetivo; intenção de abandono; políticas family-friendly

INTRODUCTION

The work-family interface is a process by which the demands and resources from each domain affect the worker’s behavior in the other domain (Bakker et al., 2011). Recent research on these interrelationships has explained how positive emotional experiences gained in each domain are transferred to the other. This inter-domain transfer generates a work-family enrichment effect with positive impacts on role performance (Carlson et al., 2006; Eynde & Mortelmans, 2023; Greenhaus & Powel, 2006). This enrichment is bidirectional, occurring both from the work domain to the family domain (work-to-family enrichment – WtoFE) and from the family domain to the work domain (family-to-work enrichment – FtoWE) (Carlson et al., 2006; Greenhaus & Powel, 2006). This research focuses on both directions of work-family enrichment.

These positive synergies between both domains stem from a set of links between the simultaneous performance of roles in the family and work spheres, the rewards inherent to each sphere, the mood state in both spheres, the use of available time, and the general emotional disposition (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). Rewards in the performance of a role generate a better mood state in the sphere of origin, affecting the time devoted to this role and the general emotional disposition. Similarly, time spent in one domain will directly impact the performance and time spent in the other domain (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000).

Regardless of direction, work-family enrichment can generate positive job attitudes such as job satisfaction (JS) and affective commitment (AC) (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Liu et al., 2022; McNall, Nicklin et al., 2010; Wayne et al., 2006). JS is understood as an individual’s positive emotional reaction to his or her appraisal of his or her work (Locke, 1984). AC is defined as the positive emotional attachment that promotes the worker’s sense of identity with the company and strengthens his or her attachment to the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Moreover, workers who are more satisfied with their job tend to feel more affectively committed to the company (Luna-Arocas & Camps, 2008; Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018).

Likewise, JS and AC predict personnel behaviors such as turnover intention (TI) (Liu et al., 2022; Mowday et al., 1979). TI is understood as a worker’s desire to leave the company (Mobley et al., 1978). Less satisfied and less committed personnel manifest stronger intentions to leave their companies and seek other job opportunities (Russo & Buonocore, 2012). The execution of the intention to leave the company results in employee turnover (Wang et al., 2017), with pernicious results on its competitiveness (Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018).

Since JS and AC generate a negative and direct impact on TI, both act as a transmission belt between work-family enrichment and TI. This relationship contributes to leverage resources aimed at balancing work and family life through the implementation of family-friendly policies (Gabini, 2020; Koekemoer et al., 2020; Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018). Along these lines, according to social exchange theory (Blau, 1986), employees who are treated favorably experience a feeling of gratitude towards their company, guided by a principle of reciprocity (Gabini, 2020; Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018). Thus, because family-friendly policies promote work-family enrichment, workers can be expected to show the effects of this feeling through favorable attitudes towards work, such as JS and AC (Russo & Buonocore, 2012).

Inspired by these precedents, this research tests a model that considers direct and positive causal relationships from WtoFE and FtoWE toward JS and AC and, from these two, presupposes direct and negative relationships toward TI. The model also includes a direct and positive relationship from JS to AC. The database was generated from a self-administered personal survey of active Spanish workers, excluding the self-employed and civil servants. The data were analyzed by structural equation modeling (SEM) using SPSS/AMOS 26.0.

The results provide new knowledge on human resources’ behavior and attitudes and, specifically, on the effects stemming from work-family enrichment. First, research under the work-family enrichment perspective has grown in recent years with little progress (Bansal & Agarwal, 2020; Eynde & Mortelmans, 2023). Very few studies include the family-to-work direction, as considered in this research, contributing to filling this gap in the literature. Second, research on work-family enrichment mostly analyzes the causes but not the effects generated on other variables (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021). Multiple authors have claimed the need for more research in this regard (Bansal & Agarwal, 2020; Eynde & Mortelmans, 2023). Therefore, the present study analyzes the effects stemming from work-family enrichment in both directions. Third, since work-family enrichment may vary across national cultural contexts (Gopalan et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022), this research is developed in a cultural context with the specificities of Spain. The basic cultural dimension of masculinity-femininity, identified by Hofstede’s (1994) cultural theory, reaches a medium level on the scale for Spain. This position reveals that a moderate division of roles between the sexes persists (Hofstede & Bond, 1988). For this reason, actions established by Spanish regulations related to work-life balance addressed this issue as a challenge mainly affecting women (Parra-Moreno et al., 2022). Recently, the trend has been towards greater flexibility at work. This labor flexibility should facilitate the harmonization between work and family environments, promoting equal participation in domestic responsibilities (Chieregato, 2020).

The research results also have useful and relevant managerial implications for the design of family-friendly policies that enhance the enrichment effect between the domestic and work spheres. In turn, through this effect, satisfaction would be improved, and the human capital commitment would be regenerated. Ultimately, the pernicious effects that turnover has on business results and competitiveness, caused by high levels of TI, would be reduced.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Work-family enrichment

Although research abounds on how people manage role performance across multiple domains, the literature mostly focuses on its negative consequences (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). Workers have a fixed quantity of resources, primarily time and energy, which they consume to meet the expectations and demands of different roles. From this competition in the demand for scarce resources arises the conflict, which leads to the perspective of work-family conflict (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006).

Recent studies on the work-family interface have recognized the presence of a beneficial connection that enhances performance in both roles (Carlson et al., 2006; Eynde & Mortelmans, 2023; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Lin et al., 2020; Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018). This connection is based on the fact that people’s activity not only consumes but also produces resources (Gopalan et al., 2022). This consideration fosters the perspective of work-family enrichment, understood as “the degree to which experiences in one role enhance the quality of life in the other role” (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006, p. 73). Simultaneous participation in professional and family experiences can contribute to individuals being relieved of stress originating in the other domain, with positive effects on their physical and psychological well-being (Premchandran & Priyadarshi, 2020). In addition, skills and knowledge acquired in one role can be transferred to the other (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021). In short, the work-family interface can generate energy that can be used to improve performance, generating favorable experiences and achievements in the other sphere (Carlson et al., 2006; Eynde & Mortelmans, 2023), and, on this basis, this research is developed.

The work-family enrichment model (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006) identifies five types of resources. On the one hand, cognitive and interpersonal skills (e.g., knowledge and wisdom) and expectations refer to ways of interpreting or handling circumstances, consideration for the particularities of each individual, or the capacity for empathy. On the other hand, physical resources and psychological resources (e.g., self-efficacy or self-esteem), or optimistic expectations for the future (e.g., hope and optimism). In addition, social capital resources (e.g., networks and information), or flexibility, are related to the ability to plan time, context, and location to carry out a role. Finally, material resources (e.g., rewards and money). These resources generated in one domain can be transferred to the other in two ways. One, instrumentally, by means of a direct transfer, without requiring a prior valorization in the sender domain. Another is affective, when they are transferred indirectly through performance and affect (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006).

Given the bidirectional nature of work-family enrichment, the presence of both a WtoFE and an FtoWE is identified. WtoFE occurs when employees transfer resources and positive experiences generated in the work domain that enhance the performance of their role in the family domain. FtoWE is generated when the transfer of resources and positive experiences generated in the family environment, such as positive emotions or family support, contribute to strengthening work outcomes (Carlson et al., 2006; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). These models of domain-specific associations consider that resources acquired in one domain facilitate role performance in the other domain (Wayne et al., 2006). However, other research has also found cross-domain associations. These associations recognize that resources generated and acquired in one domain not only affect the other domain but also generate even more positive reactions to attitudes and behaviors in the domain of origin (Wadsworth & Owens, 2007). Thus, WtoFE would not only generate favorable outcomes in the family domain but also improve the worker’s positive perception of his or her job (Yasir et al., 2019). Consequently, it is relevant to include the two directions of work-family enrichment in this study, regardless of whether the transfer of resources between domains takes place instrumentally or affectively.

According to social exchange theory (Blau, 1986), when workers feel the support of their employers in balancing their family and work responsibilities, they experience a sense of correspondence, showing a positive attitude towards their work sphere (Aryee et al., 2005; Koekemoer et al., 2020; McNall, Masuda et al., 2010). These attitudes, based on a norm of reciprocity, can materialize in improvements in JS and AC. In turn, these improvements impact behavioral trends in the organization, such as TI (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021; Carlson et al., 2006; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Liu et al., 2022; Wayne et al., 2006). This direct effect of work-family enrichment on TI has been scarcely studied and with inconclusive results (McNall, Nicklin, et al., 2010; Wayne et al., 2006). Therefore, we do not include this direct relationship in the model, but we do consider that attitudinal variables exert a direct impact on TI.

Job Satisfaction and Work-Family Enrichment

JS is a pleasant and positive emotional state experienced by workers as an affective response to their appraisal of the job and their previous work experiences (Locke, 1984). The degree of satisfaction with the work fluctuates depending on the employee’s continuous evaluation of his or her working conditions (Mobley, 1982). Thus, two individuals with the same degree of satisfaction may interpret it differently depending on their previous level of satisfaction (Chen et al., 2011).

Recent research demonstrated the presence of a direct and positive association between work-family enrichment and JS in either direction (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021; Bhalla & Kang, 2019; Chung et al., 2018; Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018; McNall, Nicklin et al., 2010). Transferring resources (attention, time, or importance) inter-domains can increase satisfaction. Using time and attention to attend to the demands of a domain can increase its effectiveness and associated gratifications, enhancing satisfaction (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). In addition, time, attention, and importance enhance the impact of gratifications on satisfaction. This is because focusing time and attention on gratification increases satisfaction with the gratification. In addition, meaningful gratifications enhance satisfaction, helping the individual to improve performance (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). McNall, Masuda et al. (2010) consider that increases in JS levels are a response to the good treatment received by the employee (Blau, 1986) and to the activation of the affective pathway of enrichment transfer (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006).

Workers who experience work-family enrichment have resources that allow them to be more autonomous in the development of their work tasks, develop new skills, and perform their work more accurately and efficiently (Bhalla & Kang, 2019). In addition, they present higher levels of self-esteem and greater control of their work and family life, improving the balance between both domains (Aryee et al., 2005; Koekemoer et al., 2020). These circumstances generate positive feelings in the workers towards their work, contributing to improving their level of JS (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021; Bhalla & Kang, 2019).

Consequently, the transfer of positive resources generated in one domain to enhance role performance in the other domain, by virtue of a work-family enrichment effect, promotes a positive attitudinal impact on the worker, improving his or her JS (Carlson et al., 2006; McNall, Nicklin et al., 2010; Russo & Buonocore, 2012). Some investigations (Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018; Premchandran & Priyadarshi, 2020; Yasir et al., 2019) found that only WtoFE, and not FtoWE influences JS, or that this relationship was mediated by other variables (Gabini, 2020; Koekemoer et al., 2020). However, most research supports this direct and positive relationship between the two variables, regardless of the direction of work-family enrichment. This is evidenced by comprehensive literature reviews (e.g., Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021; Liu et al., 2022) or more specific studies. Among these, it is worth highlighting that of Aryee et al. (2005), developed among dual-income families in India, working in the financial, manufacturing, and telecommunications sectors; that of Bhalla and Kang (2019) among journalists; that of Chung et al. (2018), among different generations (Baby Boomer, Gen X, Gen Y) of Malaysians, or that of Martínez-Sánchez et al. (2018), among workers of Spanish companies awarded with the ‘Flexible Business Award’.

Consequently, we propose the following hypotheses:

H1: Work-to-family enrichment directly and positively impacts job satisfaction.

H2: Family-to-work enrichment directly and positively impacts job satisfaction.

Affective commitment and work-family enrichment

Organizational commitment is described as a specific form of connectedness that shows a worker’s responsibility and dedication toward his or her company’s goals (Genari & Macke, 2022). Among the dimensions of organizational commitment, AC is the one that most clearly reflects the positive emotional bond towards the organization (Gabini, 2020; McNall, Nicklin et al., 2010). The AC evidences the worker’s willingness to feel identified with the company and to actively participate in it (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Affectively committed workers experience feelings of affective or emotional belonging toward their organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990).

In line with the affective pathway of cross-domain resource transfer inherent to work-family enrichment (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; McNall, Nicklin et al., 2010), workers who manifest positive emotions in some domains will expand their AC. This direct and positive effect of work-family enrichment on AC is justified by the social exchange theory (Blau, 1986). According to this theory, the worker will feel an obligation to reciprocate with his or her company by developing an attitude of (affective) commitment. This attitude responds to their perception that the balance achieved between their work and family domains is due to the company’s care and concern for their well-being, by implementing measures that promote harmonization between the two domains (Aryee et al., 2005; Gabini, 2020). These perceptions incline the worker to feel positive emotions towards their work, redirecting their attitude towards the execution of actions that exceed their responsibilities and work attributions, helping to achieve the company’s objectives (McNall, Nicklin et al., 2010; Mowday et al., 1979).

Thus, workers who experience work-family enrichment may transfer emotions and attitudes across domains, which positively redound to their AC (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021; Carlson et al., 2006; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; McNall, Nicklin et al., 2010). Some studies found that this effect only occurred in the work-to-family direction (Wayne et al., 2006), or through the mediation of other variables (Koekemoer et al., 2020). However, direct and positive causality between either direction of work-to-family enrichment and AC has been corroborated by literature reviews (e.g., Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021). Likewise, it has also been tested in different contexts, such as dual-income families (Aryee et al., 2005) or among hotel workers (Karatepe & Kilic, 2009). Thus, the following hypotheses can be proposed:

H3: Work-to-family enrichment directly and positively impacts affective commitment.

H4: Family-to-work enrichment directly and positively impacts affective commitment.

Job satisfaction and affective commitment

There is broad agreement in the literature on considering JS as an explanatory factor of AC (Chung et al., 2018; Martínez-Sánchez et al., 2018). So, people with a higher degree of JS tend to experience a favorable feeling towards the company, which makes them feel more strongly attached to the organization. Under these circumstances, workers take on the company’s goals and values as their own because they experience a greater emotional commitment to the company (Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018; Mowday et al., 1979).

This relationship has been corroborated by studies developed in different professional and national contexts. It is worth highlighting that of Aryee et al. (2005) among dual income families in India, that of Luna-Arocas and Camps (2008) among Spanish workers, or that of Gabini (2020) in the service sector in Argentina. Thus, the following hypothesis can be established:

H5: Job satisfaction directly and positively impacts affective commitment.

Turnover intention, job satisfaction, and affective commitment

TI is a cognitive process that shows the employee’s desire to separate from the organization (Mobley et al., 1978). Attention to TI sprouts from the relevance that organizations attribute to the development and retention of their human talent as a key competitive factor (Chen et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2017). The choice to leave arises from a rational process of contrasting the current job and job alternatives, which is consummated when the decision is made to leave the current job (Wang et al., 2017). The literature has focused on explaining how attitudes, such as JS and AC, promote intentions and negatively affect behaviors such as TI (Mobley, 1982; Russo & Buonocore, 2012; Wayne et al., 2006).

The JS strongly influences the employee’s intention to leave their company (Chen et al., 2011), since the TI is the result of the interaction between the desire and the feasibility of changing jobs. Therefore, the degree of satisfaction can be interpreted as the employees’ desire to leave the company to which they belong (Direnzo & Greenhaus, 2011). Thus, low levels of satisfaction with work are closely linked to a higher propensity to leave (Chen et al., 2011). Therefore, the following hypothesis can be proposed:

H6: Job satisfaction directly and positively impacts turnover intention.

Likewise, AC is the most influential factor on worker behavioral intentions, such as TI (Blomme et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2017). Indeed, AC implies a worker’s propensity to maintain favorable behaviors that contribute to the company’s goals (Vandenberghe & Bentein, 2009). This feeling, linked to the emotional attachment to the company inherent to AC (Allen & Meyer, 1990), deters the worker from valuing a potential job change (Russo & Buonocore, 2012), and is therefore negatively related to behavior referred to by TI (Genari, & Macke, 2022; Vandenberghe & Bentein, 2009). Thus, employees whose AC is high consider staying with the company because they want to (Carmeli & Weisberg, 2006). The most affectively committed workers develop a greater sense of belonging and loyalty to the organization. Under these circumstances, workers generate a feeling of responsibility that predisposes them to remain in the organization, being less likely to develop TI (Luna-Arocas & Camps, 2008). Therefore, the following hypothesis can be proposed:

H7: Affective commitment directly and negatively impacts turnover intention.

METHODOLOGY

Theoretical model and sample

This study tests a structural model (Figure 1) that captures causal relationships from the family-work interface (WtoFE and FtoWE) on JS and AC, as well as the effects of these constructs on TI. The causal association between JS and AC is also considered. Hypotheses were tested by SEM using the SPSS/AMOS 26.0 statistical package.

Figure 1
Research model and hypotheses

Quantitative research has been designed, using a self-administered and personal structured questionnaire. To mitigate the biases inherent to the research method, care was taken to ensure that participants did not feel that they were being personally evaluated, that they were not conditioned by their judgments about the purposes of the research, and that they answered honestly (Podsakoff et al., 2007). In addition, the questions in the questionnaire were based on validated scales to mitigate any possible imprecision of the items and to improve the interpretation of the answering procedure.

The study universe is made up of 775,300 active Spanish workers employed in any sector of activity. The sample comprises 238 employees (e=±5%; p=q=0.5; confidence level = 95%), obtained from 244 responses received, six of which were invalidated. The gender distribution of the sample is 47.48% male and 52.52% female. The average age of the sample is 38.23 years, 39.44 years for males and 37.13 for females. 37.39% hold managerial, professional, technical, and associated professional positions; 7.98% are engaged in skilled work in fishing, manufacturing, agriculture, and related sectors; 15.97% perform routine and manual labor in workshops, factories, and industries, and the remaining 38.66% are service, sales, administrative, and clerical workers.

Description of variables

Table 1 shows scale information for the research model’s constructs. These scales are commonly employed in studies of worker behavior.

Table 1
Constructs and items of the scales

Construct / Source	Description	Id. item	Items	Scale
Work-to-family enrichment (WtoFE) / Jimenez et al. (2009)	Process through which employees transfer resources and positive experiences generated in the work domain that improve the outcome of their role in the family domain (Carlson et al., 2006; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006).	WtoFE1	After a pleasant day or week of work, you feel in a better mood to do activities with your partner/family/friends	Never/ Sometimes/ Often/Always
		WtoFE2	You perform your household duties better thanks to skills you have learned at work
		WtoFE3	You perform your household duties better thanks to skills you have learned at work
		WtoFE4	Having to organize your time at work has made you learn to better organize your time at home
		WtoFE5	You are able to interact better with your partner/family/friends thanks to the skills you have learned at work
Family-to-work enrichment (FtoWE) / Jiménez et al. (2009)	Process through which employees transfer resources and positive experiences generated in the family environment, such as positive emotions or family support, which contribute to strengthening results in the workplace (Carlson et al., 2006; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006).	FtoWE1	After spending a fun weekend with your partner/family/friends, you find your work more enjoyable	Never/ Sometimes/ Often/Always
		FtoWE2	You take your work responsibilities very seriously because you must do the same at home.
		FtoWE3	You duly fulfill your work responsibilities because at home you have acquired the ability to commit to things
		FtoWE4	Having to organize your time at home has made you learn to better organize your time at work
		FtoWE5	You have more self-confidence at work because your life at home is well organized
Job satisfaction (JS) / Meliá and Peiró (1988)	Pleasant and positive emotional state that workers experience as an affective response to their assessment of the job and their previous work experiences (Locke, 1984)	JS5	Personal relationships with superiors	Very Dissatisfied / Somewhat Dissatisfied / Indifferent / Somewhat Satisfied / Very Satisfied
		JS6	The supervision they exercise over you
		JS7	The proximity and frequency with which it is supervised
		JS8	The way your supervisors judge your task
		JS9	The “equality” and “fairness” of treatment you receive from your company
		JS10	The support you receive from your superiors
Affective commitment (AC) / Díaz et al. (1998)	The worker’s desire to identify with the organization and actively participate in it (Allen & Meyer, 1990).	AC1	I would like to continue the rest of my professional career in this organization	Strongly disagree/Disagree/Indifferent/Agree/Strongly agree
		AC2	I truly feel that any problem in this organization is also my problem.
		AC3	Working for this organization means a lot to me.
		AC4	In this organization, I feel like family
		AC5	I am proud to work in this organization
		AC6	I do not feel emotionally attached to this organization
		AC7	I feel like an integral part of this organization
Turnover intention (TI) / Mobley et al. (1978)	The employee’s willingness to separate from the company (Mobley et al., 1978)	TI1	I often think about leaving the organization	Strongly disagree/Disagree/Indifferent/Agree/Strongly agree
		TI2	I am actively looking for a new job outside the organization.
		TI3	As soon as possible, I will leave the organization

Metric analysis of the model

Confirmatory factor analysis advises the elimination of items from certain scales because their elimination significantly improved Cronbach’s alpha, or because they showed factor loadings below 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010; Steenkamp & Trijp, 1991). For the WtoFE scale, two items were eliminated (WtoFE1 and WtoFE2), leaving three items (α = 0.689). For the FtoWE scale, one item (FtoWE1) was eliminated, leaving four items (α = 0.8). Finally, for the AC scale, one item (AC6) was eliminated, leaving it made up of six items (α = 0.867). For their part, JS (α = 0.927) and TI (α = 0.835) retain all items (Table 2).

Table 2
Metric analysis of the model. Summary of statistics

Construct	Id. item	Standardized factor loading	Standard error	α Cronbach	CRI	AVE
Work-to-family enrichment	WtoFE3	.677***	.0061	0.689	0.694	0.434
	WtoFE4	.744***	.0059
	WtoFE5	.540***	.0063
Family-to-work enrichment	FtoWE2	.563***	.0068	0.8	0.770	0.464
	FtoWE3	.658***	.0053
	FtoWE4	.871***	.0053
	FtoWE5	.589***	.0069
Job satisfaction	JS5	.811***	.0030	0.927	0.924	0.671
	JS6	.801***	.0031
	JS7	.764***	.0034
	JS8	.865***	.0024
	JS9	.794***	.0036
	JS10	.873***	.0023
Affective commitment	AC1	.722***	.0038	0.867	0.872	0.536
	AC2	.650***	.0052
	AC3	.813***	.0035
	AC4	.779***	.0037
	AC5	.824***	.0045
	AC7	.571***	.0077
Turnover intention	TI1	.746***	.0062	0.835	0.842	0.643
	TI2	.726***	.0052
	TI3	.919***	.0035

• *** p < 0.001

The statistics corroborate the convergent validity of all the scales, based on their significant factor loadings (Table 2). In addition, the modification indices indicate that there are no significant links with any factor other than the one assigned theoretically. The measuring instrument reliability is also corroborated by the average variance extracted (AVE), the composite reliability index (CRI), and Cronbach’s alphas, except for the latent variable WtoFE. However, its acceptable values of Cronbach’s α and its CRI, together with the logic of the theoretical model, mean this variable is retained in the model.

The values shown in Table 3 confirm the internal consistency between the constructs of the measurement instrument.

Table 3
Discriminant validity of the measuring instrument

	FtoWE	WtoFE	JS	AC	TI
FtoWE	0.681	0.565***	0.259***	0.336***	-0.099
WtoFE	(0.395; 0.735)	0.659	0.290***	0.400***	-0.238**
JS	(0.115; 0.403)	(0.138; 0.442)	0.819	0.520***	-0.335***
AC	(0.202; 0.470)	(0.230; 0.570)	(0.400; 0.640)	0.732	-0.672***
TI	(−0.255; 0.057)	(−0.402; −0.074)	(−0.457; −0.213)	(−0.806; −0.538)	0.802

• ** p<.01 *** p<.001
• On the diagonal: inter-construct correlation
• Diagonal: square root of AVE
• Below the diagonal: confidence interval for inter-construct correlation

Finally, the goodness-of-fit of the model (Table 4) complied with the recommended indices.

Table 4
Goodness of fit of the measuring instrument – Summary of statistics

χ2 (g.l) p-valor	GFI	RMSEA	AGFI	NFI	TLI	CFI	CMIN/DF
411.309 (198) 0.000	0.866	0.068	0.829	0.866	0.913	0.925	2.077

Analysis of the structural model

Figure 2 shows the estimates of the structural relationships predicted in the proposed model, analyzed using structural equation modelling.

Figure 2
Estimated Structural Model

Despite the good fit, the estimated structural model did not allow confirmation of the causal relationships between WtoFE and FtoWE, on JS and AC, nor between JS and TI (Table 5).

Table 5
Significance of the tested hypotheses [traduzir]

Hypothesis	Exogenous variable	Endogenous variable	Standard coefficient	T value	Finding
1	Work-to-family enrichment	Job satisfaction	0.187	1.21	Not Supported
2	Family-to-work enrichment	Job satisfaction	0.226	1.69	Supported
3	Work-to-family enrichment	Affective commitment	0.248***	3.49	Not Supported
4	Family-to-work enrichment	Affective commitment	0.192**	2.70	Supported
5	Job satisfaction	Affective commitment	0.436***	5.81	Supported
6	Job satisfaction	Turnover intention	0.021	0.28	Not Supported
7	Affective commitment	Turnover intention	−0.680***	−7.91	Supported

• χ² (gl=199)=384.757 (p<0.0001); CMIN/DF=1.933; NFI=0.875; TLI=0.924; CFI=0.935; RMSEA=0.063; GFI=0.874; AGFI=0.839 **p<0.01 ***p<0.001

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Implications for research

In the Spanish cultural environment in which this research was carried out, the results referring to work-family enrichment should be understood as embedded in an idiosyncrasy characterized by a moderate division of roles between the sexes. This is evidenced by the average level of Hofstede’s (1994) and Hofstede and Bond’s (1988) basic cultural dimension of masculinity-femininity. This circumstance poses a challenge in terms of national regulations on actions related to work-life balance (Parra-Moreno et al., 2022). These regulations aim to achieve greater flexibility in the workplace, with the objective of facilitating harmonization between the family and work spheres to encourage equal participation in domestic responsibilities (Chieregato, 2020).

In this cultural context, the model estimation supports the positive and direct impact of FtoWE on JS (H2: β=0.248; p<0.001) and AC (H4: β=0.192; p<0.01). This result reveals that, following a domain-specific associations perspective, positive experiences in the family domain generate a positive effect also in the work domain, in terms of JS and AC (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021; Aryee et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2022). This result has been exclusively demonstrated for JS by Bhalla and Kang (2019) and Chung et al. (2018), and for AC by Gabini (2020). When workers perceive that they have greater resources generated in the family environment, which allows them to better meet work demands, they experience a transfer of resources through the instrumental pathway (e.g., skills, attitudes, and material resources) and/or through the affective pathway (e.g., positive emotions and mood). This transfer promotes high job performance and generates a positive atmosphere at work. Premchandran and Priyadarshi (2020) corroborate the link between enrichment and job satisfaction, although with a weaker relationship than the influence exerted by WtoFE. Karatepe and Kilic (2009) reached the same result for AC, but not for JS, in their study among workers in Cypriot hotels.

On the contrary, the hypotheses predicting the positive and direct influence of WtoFE on JS (H1) and AC (H3) have not been supported. Karatepe and Kilic (2009) reached the same result for AC, but not for JS, which showed a significant relationship. This result is due to the presumption of predominance of a cross-domain association (Wadsworth & Owens, 2007). This assumption leads to the expectation that the positive effects of the WtoFE, based on resources generated and acquired in the workplace, would be transferred to the domestic sphere, although it would also generate even more positive effects on attitudes in the domain of origin, improving the degrees of JS and AC at work (Premchandran & Priyadarshi, 2020). On the contrary, everything indicates that the domain-specific association model prevailed in the relationship (Wayne et al., 2006), suggesting that the effects derived from the enrichment emanating from the domain work towards the family generate positive effects on variables strictly in the family sphere. Although the WtoFE may have positive effects in the work environment, these effects may not be uniform for all individuals, which could limit its generalized impact. The individual and contextual differences can modify the impacts of the WtoFE, which can also affect the transfer of resources between work and family spheres. Therefore, the prevalence of one type or another of association between domains (cross or specific) could depend on the level of interdependence between both domains. Furthermore, aspects such as organizational support, work flexibility, or work-life balance policies could modulate the transfer of resources and improve results in each of the family and work spheres. In short, WtoFE is a complex phenomenon that requires an individualized and contextualized approach to be adopted when analyzing its effects on the worker’s JS and AC in their work environment.

It is also corroborated that JS has a positive and direct impact on AC (H5: β = .472; p < 0.001). This association has already been demonstrated by previous studies in different professional and geographical fields (Chung et al., 2018; Gabini, 2020; Luna-Arocas & Camps, 2008; Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018). Likewise, the results confirmed the presence of a positive and direct relationship between AC and TI, proposed in hypothesis H7. This result corroborates findings from previous research (Russo & Buonocore, 2012; Wang et al., 2017). In this sense, the AC is presented as the best and most stable attitudinal factor to predict TI (Mowday et al., 1979).

On the contrary, the results did not confirm the impact of JS on TI (H6). This result can be explained by the complexity of behaviors such as TI, which makes it difficult to find an attitudinal factor that determines it (Mowday et al., 1979). The non-acceptance of this hypothesis is consistent with the results of Currivan (2000), who found a non-significant relationship. This suggests that JS is unlikely to impact TI, given the significant importance that AC has in models analyzing TI (Russo & Buonocore, 2012). Indeed, the mediating role of AC has been demonstrated when TI is related to various variables, including JS (Blomme et al., 2010; Russo & Buonocore, 2012).

Managerial implications

Relevant managerial implications are derived from the results. These implications guide managers to design actions aimed at improving the satisfaction of their employees and regenerating their emotional commitment. Ultimately, these actions would contribute to reducing the negative effects of rotation on the productivity, safety, or performance of the sales force (Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018). These problems derived from rotation must be combated proactively as they are known to be the result of low JS and AC. In addition to appropriating resources through recruiting and selecting personnel, managers must dedicate efforts to retaining talent.

Thus, companies must redirect their resources towards creating shared value for the company and employees, through the implementation of family-friendly policies. These policies contribute to facilitating harmonization between work and family environments, in order to generate a work-family enrichment effect (Ebrahim, 2021; Koekemoer et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022; Martinez-Sanchez et al., 2018). This effect will result in greater JS, greater AC, and, ultimately, a reduction in TI levels (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021), improving the retention capacity of human capital. This leverage effect of resources destined to improve the balance between both spheres would contribute to an increase in the company’s sources of competitive advantages.

These policies must be aimed at reaching labor flexibility agreements regardless of the sex of the workers (Ebrahim, 2021; Liu et al., 2022), providing them with the capacity to decide on the place, moment, and time of dedication to the performance of their tasks (McNall, Masuda et al., 2010). Family-friendly policies should consider flexibility mechanisms for both work hours (flextime) and the place where work is performed (flexplace) (Gopalan et al., 2022; McNall, Masuda et al., 2010; Spreitzer et al., 2017). This requires a results-oriented work organization (Koekemoer et al., 2020). Likewise, actions should be implemented aimed at improving continuous training, independence in decision-making processes, job security and prestige (Gabini, 2020; Koekemoer et al., 2020; Liu, et al., 2022), and improving the labor climate (Su et al., 2023). Specifically, mechanisms must be articulated that empower employees to determine their work schedules, work shifts, enjoy a compressed work week, or the flexible use of family and parental leave (McNall, Masuda et al., 2010; Presti et al., 2020). In addition, companies should favor teleworking or establish mixed formulas along with in-person work (Bolino et al., 2020; Ebrahim, 2021). However, these support mechanisms can lead the worker to perceive that their professional career may be harmed since such mechanisms make them invisible in their workplace and, therefore, they must be accompanied by emotional support measures (Ebrahim, 2021).

The favorable treatment perceived by workers when their company implements family-friendly policies will generate a feeling of gratitude that workers will tend to reward through positive attitudes toward work. Finally, these attitudes will result in a feeling of stability, loyalty, and responsibility that will link him or her more closely and lastingly to the organization (Gabini, 2020).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this research contribute new theoretical knowledge to the literature related to the behavior of company personnel. The results revealed the existence of a relationship between FtoWE and JS and AC. On the contrary, it has not been corroborated that this association exists when the antecedent is WtoFE. Likewise, the relationship between JS and AC and between AC and TI has been confirmed. However, the results have not confirmed the link between JS and TI.

It is also concluded that family conciliation strategies and measures represent formal support for the worker. Individuals employed in companies that promote a “family-friendly” environment, characterized by a business culture that encourages harmony between the work and family spheres, not only through isolated measures but in a comprehensive manner, report higher levels of work-family enrichment. This enrichment effect results in an increase in JS, a greater AC, and, finally, a lower propensity towards TI.

This research has a series of limitations. Given that the association between JS and AC follows a cyclical behavior, future research should test dynamic models. Furthermore, the phenomenon of enrichment between work and home domains is complex, and the individual and contextual differences of each individual can modify its effects depending on the prevalence of cross-domain or specific domain association. For this reason, future research should continue to explore such effects by adopting individualized and contextualized approaches. Specifically, considering the potential effects of the cultural context, the universalization of our model would be achieved by testing it in different national contexts. Finally, future studies should estimate the mediating effects of JS and AC on the proposed structural relationships, which may explain the hypotheses not confirmed in our model estimation.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  12 Aug 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  20 Apr 2023
• Accepted
  20 May 2024